He has studied/had studied/ English

will have studied

Non-finite VP

Studying English, he learnt a lot about the British.

Studying English

is useful.

To study English

Finite verbs occur as the predicate of sentences. There is usually person and number agreement between the subject and the finite verb. Compared with other European languages, English has very few person and number inflections. With all English verbs except be, agreement is confined to a contrast between the 3rd person singular and all other forms of the present tense.

1st	I, we	run-ø
2nd	you, you	run-ø
3rd	he, she, it	run-s
	they	run-ø

Verb phrases can be subdivided into two major types: those having a verbal adjunct and those having a non-verbal adjunct. To the first group belong the following phrases:

V_i to V : seem to believe (it)

V_t to V : begin to understand

V_t p V_ing: insist on going (there)

V_i V_ing : sit smiling

Verb phrases with a non-verbal adjunct can comprise two or three members. Accordingly, double (1) and triple (2) phrases are distinguished.

(1)	V_i / V_t p N:	write in pencil
	V_iN:	become a sailor; die a beggar
	V_t N / Pr:	write a letter
	V_i p N / Pr:	look at the picture
	V_i A:	come angry; stand silent
	V_i/ V_t Adv:	walk slowly
(2)	V_t Pr N:	give him a book
	V_t p Pr N:	explain to them the rule
	V_t(p) Pr (to)V:	see him run
	V_t Pr p N:	regards it as a threat

4.2 Characteristics of the verb

The verb is a notional part of speech which denotes an action (run, write) or a state conceived as process (dream, worry).

The verb has person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood distinctions. There are two kinds of verb forms: finite and non-finite. The finite forms have person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood distinctions. The n о n-finite forms of the verb are the infinitive (to write), the present participle (writing), the past participle (written), and the gerund (writing). Finite verbs occur as the predicate of the sentence: e.g. Henry has my address. There is usually person and number agreement between the subject and the finite verb, which is particularly clear with the verb be:

I am/you are/he is against it.

Modal verbs count as finite verbs, although they do not inflect for number and person in the present tense: I/you/he must do it.

Non-finite forms cannot be used as predicates. They can be only part of a predicate*: e.g. One way out of it was never to use the instrument; I wanted to meet you; He dreads losing you.

4.3 Classifications of verbs

I. Morphological classification

Many English verbs have four principal forms: the stem (coinciding with the present indefinite except the 3^rdperson singular), the past tense, the present participle, and the past participle.

Regular verbs have the same -ed inflection added to the stem for both the past tense and past participle. The majority of English verbs belong to this regular class. All new verbs that are coined or borrowed from other languages adopt this pattern: e.g. publicize (=make publicity), publicized, publicized; gazump (=cheat), gazumped, gazumped.

Irregular verbs are those whose past tense and past participle cannot be formed according to a rule. There are in English 250 irregular verbs which can be subdivided into consonantal, vocalic and unchangeable.

Consonantal verbs have a -t inflection (dwell - dwelt - dwelt). Some of them have also variation in their base vowel (think - thought - thought, feel - felt - felt). Along with irregular forms such verbs as burn, learn, dwell have regular forms: burned, learned, dwelled.

Vocalic verbs have variation in the root vowel (sing-sang-sung; win-won-won).

Vowel or consonant change may be accompanied by affixation: speak - spoke - spoken; sell - sold - sold.

Unchangeable verbs have the past tense and past participle the same as the stem: put - put - put; let - let - let.

Among irregular verbs there are two suppletive verbs whose forms are “supplied” from different stems: be has eight different forms (be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been) and go has went for the past tense and gone for the past participle.

Modal verbs (or modals) are called “defective” in that some of their forms are missing.

4.4 Semantic classification

Semantically, verbs can be grouped into dynamic and static verbs. Dynamic (action) verbs refer to activity and can therefore be used in the continuous form. They include walk, run, read, write, work, play, look, listen, etc.

Static verbs refer to states and do not normally occur in the continuous form. They include be, have (in the sense of “hold” or “possess”), contain, consist, know, believe, prefer, suppose, see, hear, etc.

The majority of English verbs are dynamic and even those which are static are often given a dynamic use in present-day English:

I was seeing and hearing it done; I’ve been meaning to have a word with you.

4.5 Lexico-grammatical classification

According to their function in the phrase, which is closely connected with their meaning, all verbs are divided into notional, auxiliary and semi-auxiliary.

Notional verbs have a full lexical meaning of their own and can be used in a sentence as simple verbal predicate or notional part of a compound verbal predicate (say, sleep, cry, etc):

She told me all about herself; Perhaps we could do something to make it easy.

Auxiliary verbs have no lexical meaning of their own. They are used as part of analytical forms (perfect, continuous, future forms, etc). They have a pure structural function in the verb phrase. Here belong such verbs as be, do, shall, will, have.

It would be lovely; You didn’t come here for all this.

Semi-auxiliary verbs can be considered under two headings: link verbs and modal verbs.* To links belong such verbs as be, become, remain, turn, etc, which denote a state and function as the first part of a compound nominal predicate.

She felt sorry for the baby; The milk turned sour.

Polysemantic verbs may function as notional verbs as well as auxiliary and semi-auxiliary:

I got your telegram (notional); She got accepted by the Royal College (auxiliary); It got cool toward evening (semi-auxiliary: link).

4.6 Syntactical classification

Syntactically, verbs can be divided into subjective and objective. A subjective verb denotes an action associated only with its subject. Here belong such verbs as stand, sleep, laugh, think, rise, etc:

She sat down again opposite David; That happens.

An objective verb denotes an action associated not only with its subject but also with an object. Objective verbs can be transitive, i.e. they take a direct object:

He wants her to marry him.

Verbs which do not take a direct object are called intransitive. Here belong all subjective verbs and those objective verbs whose object is not direct. The latter may be illustrated by the examples below:

We’ve been talking about you; She looked for a place to hang the picture.

Many verbs can be used both as subjective and as objective verbs. Compare: John is going to marry Jane (objective); Harry didn’t marry until he was fifty (subjective).

Note:

Verbs may form combinations with postpositions (e.g. take off, get up, find out). These are called phrasal verbs. Some phrasal verbs retain the individual meanings of the verb and the postposition (e.g. sit down), whereas for other phrasal verbs the meaning of the combination cannot be built up from the meanings of the components (e.g. give in = surrender, turn up = appear).

4.7 Person and number

In the verb system of modern English there are two numbers - singular and plural, and three persons - first, second, and third. With most verbs, there is no contrast between number and person forms except between the 3^rd person singular present and all other persons:

I/you/they sing :: He (she, it) sings.

Person distinctions may be preserved in the future tense:

I/we shall write.	I/we should write.
He/she/it/they will write.	He/she/they would write.

4.8 Tense

Tense is a grammatical category of the verb indicating the time of an action. The main divisions of time - present, past and future, are represented in English by the primary tenses: simple present, simple past and simple future. They are also called absolute tenses.

Besides the primary tenses there are the so-called secondary tenses in English: perfect forms. They do not merely indicate that the action refers to the present, past, or future, but show that the action is related to some other action (or point of time) in the present, past, or future. Therefore the perfect forms are relative tenses.

Primary tenses

4.9 Simple present

The simple present tense of every verb except be has two forms. One, which is homonymous with the stem, is used for all persons except the 3^rd person singular. Whenever the verb is 3^rdperson singular, the -s inflection* is added to the stem.

I, we		He
You	stand still	She	stands still
They		It

Apart from the verb be which has three forms (am, is, are), there are only three exceptions to this rule: the 3^rd person singular of have is has [hxz]; the 3^rd person singular of say and do is regular in spelling (says, does), but irregular in pronunciation [sez], [dAz].

The present tense relates events or describes conditions in the present. It has several uses:

(i) It is used to express an actual present time action:

He works hard; I admire her; The paper sells well.

(ii) It is used to express a characteristic, repeated, or habitual action:

She visits us regularly; They (often) meet at the club.

(iii) It is used to express a universal truth:

The news travels fast; Two and two makes four.

The simple present can also be used with future time reference:

(i) It is occasionally used when there is a future time indicator in the sentence and the action is seen as absolutely certain. It is often the case with verbs of motion, arrival, or departure:

We leave tomorrow morning; The performance begins at eight.

The use of the simple present to express scheduled or confidently expected actions is typical of formal style.

(ii) It is used in clauses of time, condition and concession introduced by if, unless, when, whatever, etc:

If you ask him, he will help you; I’ll wait till he comes; Whatever happens, they will send me a word.

(iii) It is used in object clauses after the verbs see, take care, make sure and the like:

See that she goes to the clinic regularly and be sure she gets enough to eat.

(iv) It is used in some special questions:

What do we do next?; Where do we go, now?; When do we start?

Note:

The simple present can occasionally be used with past time reference:

[a] with the “communication” verbs “tell, hear, learn, write, etc” to express the persistence in the present of the effect of a past communication: e.g. Mike tells ( =has told) me that you've been to Paris; Much admired, I hear ( =heard);

[b] in vivid narrative, when it is termed the “historic present”: e.g. ... last week we went into Rennes to do some shopping. A couple of French boys picked us up in a cafe. Students. They were all right. So they chat us up. Di says we’re staying on our vacation with a friend of her family’s. Then they want to drive out one day and see us. (J. Fowles);

[c] in stage directions, when it is termed the “dramatic present”: e.g. The men slowly come to attention, except Charles, who, after a pause, moves to his bed and sits on it. One by one the other boys, except Pip, also sit on their beds in defiance.

4. 10 Simple past

Most verbs in English are regular and form their past tense by the addition of an ending that is spelled -ed or just -d if the stem is spelled with a final -e. This spelling represents three different sounds, depending on the final sound in the stem.

If the stem ends in [t] or [d], the ending is [Id]: hate -hated ['heitId]; load - loaded ['loudId]. If the stem ends in a voiced consonant (other than [d]) or a vowel, the ending is [d]: love - loved ['lAvd]; call - called [kLld]; bow - bowed [baud]. If the stem ends in a voiceless consonant (other than [t]) the ending is [t]: ask - asked [Rskt]; kiss - kissed [kist];wash -washed [wOSt].

In writing the following spelling rules should be observed:

verbs ending in -e take the letter d for the past: chase - chased, tremble - trembled; (2) when the stem ends in a consonant followed by y, the y changes to i before -ed is added: cry - cried, terrify - terrified; (3) a final i is always doubled: quarrel - quarrelled, control - controlled; (4) a final consonant is doubled if it is preceded by a short stressed vowel or if a verb ends in a stressed -er/-ur: nod - nodded, stop -stopped, prefer - preferred, occur - occurred. But if the preceding vowel is long or unstressed, the final consonant remains single: limit - limited, develop - developed, transform - transformed, offer - offered.

The past tense of irregular verbs cannot be formed according to a rule but must be learnt*.

The past tense relates events or describes conditions in the past, i.e. no longer present for the speaker. It has several uses:

(i) It is used to express a single occurrence (event). The idea of “no longer present” is often marked by indicators of past time (yesterday, last summer, a few years ago):

They saw it only once; I visited him yesterday.

(ii) It is used to express habitual or repeated occurrences. It is found with the time indicators regularly, always, and the like.

She visited them regularly; We met several times each week.

(iii) The past tense can be called a narrative tense since it is widely used in narration (i.e. in fiction, news items, historical documents, etc), especially to express a succession of past actions.

He turned and looked at her then; Jazz crooned distantly, stopped, struck up again.

Note:

[a] Distinct from the simple present the simple past does not imply habitual activity without a suitable adverb; “used to” or (less commonly) “would” may be needed to bring out this sense: e.g. John used to smoke much; While she ironed or washed the kitchen floor, he would read aloud to her.

[b] The past tense is commonly used instead of the present in very polite conversational formulas. It relates to the attitudes of the speaker rather than time: e.g. Did you want to see me now?

4.11 Simple future

The simple future tense has two analytical forms: shall + infinitive, will + infinitive. The auxiliary shall was used with a first person subject (singular and plural), whereas will normally occurred with the second and third person subjects. In present-day English will (or its contracted form ‘ll) can be used in all persons. But it can be replaced, optionally, by shall with a first person subject.

I		You
	will/shall be on time.	He, she,	will be on time.
We		it, they

The future tense relates events or describes conditions in the future*, i.e. at the time following the moment of speech:

We’ll go there as soon as possible and search the place; You will come with Gwen next week, won’t you?

Note:

There are several other ways of expressing future in English. The most important future constructions are: be about + ‘to’-infinitive (e.g. I feel something terrible is about to happen); be on the point/verge of (e.g. He is on the point of death). “Be about + ‘to’- infinitive” signifies an arrangement for the future (especially an official arrangement), while the other constructions emphasise the nearness of a future event.

4.12 Future-in-the-past

A future as seen from the past can be expressed by would + infinitive, or optional should + infinitive with a first person subject, in indirect speech (1), or in the continuous context of a narrative (2):

No, Signorina Annabella, he didn’t say he would be coming soon. He said he would be here, only that. He said we should all come at seven.

It was nearly nine o’clock. She would have to change and feed the baby at ten.

4.13 Secondary tenses

Secondary tenses are actually perfect forms. They consist of the auxiliary verb have in its predicative form and the past participle of the notional verb

I, we have (had, will/shall have) arrived.

You		have (had, will have) arrived.
They

He, she, it has (had, will have) arrived.

The basic meaning of the perfect is current relevance, i.e. it mentions a past or future event only because the importance of that event is felt in the present or at some past or future moment:

You have taken your chance (and there is no other).

You had taken your chance (and there was no other).

You will have taken your chance (and there will be no other).

The doll has been broken. The child is crying bitterly.

The doll had been broken. The child was crying bitterly.

The doll will have been broken. The child will be crying bitterly.

There are a number of other meanings that go with the perfect forms, such as precedence (priority), accomplishment (completion), and some other meanings.

Note:

Perfect forms of verbs of motion are sometimes found with the auxiliary ‘be’ which is a survival of old English: e.g. The blossoming time of their hope was come; But will you think of it after I am gone? (= after I die). In informal English ‘be gone’ is used to explain a situation (especially when someone or something disappeared) rather than describe what has happened. ‘Gone’ in this usage functions almost adjectively: e.g. My purse is gone. Someone has taken it; When I turned round you were gone.

4.14 Present perfect

The present perfect mentions a past event whose importance or effects are still continuing to be felt or will be felt in the future.

I have taken an aspirin. I’m better now; He’s sleeping late, he’s been up all night; You know, I’ll hate what I’ve done sometimes.

Since the present perfect includes the moment of speech or a period leading up to the present time, the following time indicators can be used with it: today, this week, lately, already, always, ever, never, yet, so far, and the like.

The postman has already been. (The postman has been already.)

I’ve always been on the old side. (= I’ve always felt old.)

Up to now we have been lucky.

The present perfect can name a future action completed before a definite moment in the future in temporal and conditional clauses.

I don’t feel I can ring him up at home until I’ve met his mother; The idea will slip through you if you haven’t made a study of the first and second sections of the book.

Note:

[a] There is some tendency, especially in American English, to use the past simple informally instead of the present perfect to refer to the recent indefinite past: e.g. I saw it already (= I have already seen it); Did you eat yet? (= Have you eaten yet?).

[b] The present is used with verbs of communication and the verbs ‘understand’ and ‘forget’, where more strictly the present perfect would be appropriate:

Я слышал, что Вы сменили работу.	I hear you’ve changed your job.
Мне сказали, что Вы сменили работу.	They tell me you’ve changed your job.
Понял.	(Now) I understand.
Я забыл название книги.	I forget the title of the book (a certain fact).
Я забыл, где он живет.	I forget where he lives (= his address).

But compare: I’veforgotten to ring her up (a certain action).

4.15 Present perfect or simple past

Either the present perfect or simple past could occur with the time indicators today, this morning, this week and the like.

have seen

I him today/this morning.

saw

The present perfect is acceptable if the time indicators include the moment of speech. But if the day has passed or it is morning no longer the simple past is used.

We often find sentences, with no time indicator, in which the use of the present perfect or simple past depends on whether the event refers to a period begun in the past and stretching up to the present or to a period now past.

‘Have you had a good time?’ would be a reasonable question to ask at the end of the party, while

‘Did you have a good time?’ would be the right question to ask the day after.

We normally use the past tense after since: e.g. You’ve changed since I saw you last. The past tense shows when the change started, or in what period it has taken place. The perfect form is acceptable but not as common as the past tense after since. It is used to emphasise the parallel nature of the action; e.g. My hair has got whiter since I have been here.

A simple present or present perfect tense can occur in sentences containing ever. The difference in meaning can be illustrated by the following examples:

Do you ever ride a motor bike? (i.e. Are you in the habit of riding it?)

Have you ever ridden a motor bike? (i.e. Did it ever happen in your life?)

The simple past is used in the following cases, where more strictly the present perfect would seem to be appropriate:

Что Вы сказали?	What did you say?
Я не слышал Вашего вопроса.	I didn’t hear your question.
Где Вы купили книгу?	Where did you buy the book?

4.16 Past perfect

Its meaning is quite similar to that of the present perfect, except that the point of interest is some moment in the past, rather than ‘now’. The past perfect names the events whose effects or results were still important at some past moment.

He had already drafted the introduction, he knew what he was going to say.

Like the simple past, the past perfect is a narrative tense. It marks a step back in the narration, relating past events that occurred before other events in the past.

Darkness had fallen... when, half an hour later, the engine panted into Blaenelly.

The past perfect can be used in temporal and conditional clauses to express completion of a future action viewed from the past.

... the next morning Uncle Gavin came for me before I had finished breakfast; But Моr decided that it was better to wait a little while until the situation had become clearer ...

The idea of “before past” is often marked by the following time indicators: already, always, ever, never, before, once, up to then, etc, and also by such indicators of exact time as a year ago, an hour before, last night, then, etc.

4.17 Past perfect or past indefinite

In some contexts the past perfect and the simple past are interchangeable:

After left

they the room, he smiled at me.

When had left

When describing one event following another in the past, we can show their relation by using the past perfect for the earlier event, or else we can use the past tense for both, and rely on the conjunctions (after, when) to show which event took place earlier.

A past or past perfect can occur in sentences containing ever. In case of a past tense the action is confined within a certain period of time.

Did you ever meet Jake at university?

When used with the past perfect ever means ‘at any time up to now’.

She asked me if I had ever been in trouble with the people.

4.18 Future perfect

It is an extremely rare tense. The future perfect relates future events that will occur before other events in the future.

Tomorrow Jean and Ken will have been married twenty years.

You’ll sleep, and when you wake these fancies will have gone.

The future perfect is sometimes associated with the modal meaning of ‘prediction’, i.e. ‘it is (highly) probable’.

The guests will have arrived by now; You will all have heard the news last night (i.e. I assume you heard it).

4.19 Aspect

The category of aspect is made up of the common and continuous (progressive) aspects. It concerns the manner in which the action is experienced or regarded: as a mere occurrence (fact) or activity in progress.

Common aspect She sings beautifully (a fact)

Continuous aspect She is singing beautifully (activity in progress)

4.20 Continuous aspect

The continuous forms consist of the auxiliary verb be in its predicative form and the present participle of the notional verb.

I am (was, shall/will be)

We, you, they are (were, will be) moving.

He, she, it is (was, will be)

The continuous aspect indicates temporariness, i.e. limited duration of the action.

‘Is she sleeping?’ Kate whispered; You were sleeping when I left; He’ll be closing in ten minutes.

Since the continuous forms express an activity going on at a definite moment or period of time they can be used with adverbs and adverbial phrases indicating that moment or period of time:

(right) now	this week (month, etc)	then
then at the moment	today	still
at 5 o’clock	soon	next, etc

There are a number of other meanings or overtones that go with the present, past and future continuous, such as incompletion, vividness of description, emotional colouring and emphasis, etc. Compare:

I go there often. I’m going there often.	Characteristic activity.
	Vivid description of an activity characteristic of a period.
She always came late. She was always coming late.	Habitual activity. It allows an objective overtone.
	Emphatic description of a habitual activity reinforced by an obligatory adverbial (‘always, constantly, for ever’). It imparts a subjective overtone and is informal.
When will you come? When will you be coming?	Present intentions (volitional interpretation - insistence -is possible).
	A ‘future - as - a - matter - of – course’. It does not suggest intention and is therefore more polite.

As pointed out in 1.4, the continuous occurs only with dynamic verbs (or more accurately, with verbs in dynamic use). Dynamic verbs include (a) activity verbs: ask, call, drink, listen, read, say, work, etc; (b) process verbs: change, grow, etc; (c) verbs of bodily sensation: ache, feel, hurt, etc; (d) momentary verbs: hit, jump, nod, etc and others.

(a) I’m learning more; (b) The weather is changing for the worse; (c) My back is hurting; (d) When I looked at him he was nodding.

The verbs which are called static verbs do not normally admit of the continuous (*He was knowing the answer). Static verbs include (a) verbs of sensory perception and judgement: believe, consider, expect, fear, hate, know, like, prefer, etc; (b) relation verbs: be, belong, contain, deserve, have, matter, mean, own, resemble, require, etc; and others.

Although static verbs may be labelled as ‘non-progressive’, there are special circumstances in which you hear them used in the continuous. In many circumstances, one may say that the static verb has been changed into a dynamic verb (or it has been given a dynamic use) as it refers to an active form of behaviour.

I was seeing and hearing it done; I wasn’t being an objective, doctor; What can I get you? - Whatever you’re having.

In the same way, think, imagine, remember, and the like can sometimes be used as ‘mental activity’ verbs.

I’m thinking about what you said.

If a static verb has several meanings it can be made dynamic by some of them, thus it may take the continuous. Compare:

I consider this his best work (A judgement).

I am considering buying one of his pictures (i.e. I am in the process of making a decision).

I saw him at the railway station (i.e. I perceived him there by the eye).

I was seeing her off (= I was going with her to the railway station).

Notes:

[a] Another exceptional case is the use of the continuous with ‘hope, want’, etc to express greater tentativeness and tact: e.g. Were you wanting to see me?; We are hoping you will support us.

[b] The present and past continuous sometimes signify a fixed arrangement for the future: e.g. The plane is taking off at 5.20; I was meeting him the next day.

[c] The future continuous is freely used with the modal meaning of prediction, i.e. for imagining what people are doing right now: e.g. My parents will probably be getting up about now and making breakfast (i.e. I assume ...).

4.21 Perfect forms of the continuous aspect

Perfect forms of the continuous aspect are analytical forms which are made with present, past and future perfect forms of the auxiliary verb be and a present participle of the notional verb.

I, we	have (had, shall/will have) been
You, they	have (had, will have) been	moving.
He, she, it	has (had, will have) been

4.22 Present perfect continuous

The present perfect continuous is used with dynamic verbs, when the speaker is emphasising the idea of activity in progress in the present period (i.e. which started in the past and has continued up to the present).

It has been raining, but it has stopped now.

With some verbs the present perfect continuous may suggest an action continuing into the present.

I’ve been waiting for an hour.

The present perfect continuous with verbs which do not generally take the continuous describes an action as if it were in progress and imparts an emotionally coloured tone.

What has been happening?; I’ve been meaning to say something to you about that, but I haven’t known now.

4.23 Present perfect or present perfect continuous

The present perfect continuous suggests not only that the activity is temporary (i.e. of limited duration), but that it need not be complete. Compare:

I have been mending the car this morning (but the job may not be finished).

I have mended the car this morning (the job is finished).

I have been learning German since we last met and made some progress in it.

I have learnt all the regular verbs since we last met (and now I know them all).

The present perfect continuous is used especially for more temporary actions and situations; when one talks about more permanent situations, the present perfect is preferred. Compare:

I’ve been living in Sally’s flat for the last month.

My parents have lived in Bristol all their lives.

I haven’t been working very well recently.

He hasn’t worked for years.

Either form would be acceptable when we talk about actions that have been repeated in a period up to the present.

rained

It every day this week.

been raining

There may be only a slight difference in meaning between the following utterances:

I’ve lived in France for two years (and I’m still there).

I’ve been living in France for two years (It says what one has been

doing during this period).

Note:

English speakers themselves do not always discriminate clearly between the two verb forms in the last contrastive pair of sentences. The most common way of talking about it is “I’ve been living in France for two years” since the speaker looks at his living in this country as something continuous. Notice that “I’m living in France for two years” is only acceptable if it is intended to mean “I am going to live in France for that period”.

4.24 Past perfect continuous

The past perfect continuous is used with action verbs, when the idea of activity in progress in the past period is conveyed.

I had been working too hard and found I needed a rest.

The past perfect continuous usually lacks emotional colouring though verbs which do not generally take the continuous acquire in the past perfect continuous some emphasis.

She knew he had been hoping for it ardently.

4.25 Future perfect continuous

The future perfect continuous hardly ever occurs in English owing to the fact that it is seldom required by the situation. When used in speech it acquires some shade of modality equal in its meaning to ‘may + infinitive’ and expresses not a future but a past time process.

That’s how she’ll have been passing her time this morning (The conversation took place at dinner time).

“Are you drunk, woman?” he roared at her. - “She’ll have been taking a little bit at the bottle to keep her strength up,” tittered Grandma Brodie maliciously.

4.26 Sequence of tenses

In a continuous text, it is usually considered desirable to retain the same tense, present or past, for each step in the narrative, description or argument. This involves one or the other of two combinations:

Present Indefinite, Present Continuous, Present Perfect and one of the Future Tenses, as in

We live in Maple Street. They are building a swimming pool near our house. We have been here for ten years and will probably stay here for the rest of our lives.

Past Indefinite, Past Continuous, Past Perfect and Future-in-the-Past:

We lived in Maple Street. They were building houses all around us then. We had been there for ten years and imagined we would stay there for the rest of our lives.

However, any combination of tenses is possible if each tense is used appropriately to express the speaker's exact meaning. Thus:

I don’t know what to think, Gloria. Your last letter, cold, without a word of affection or even a decent account of what you’ve been doing, came two weeks ago.

To report what someone has stated, one can either use quotation marks (direct speech) or a subordinate clause which can be called a reported clause (indirect speech). To introduce direct and indirect speech a reporting verb is used which is usually a verb of saying.

“I should be with you by seven,” she said.

“Sure you won’t mind the empty house? I hate arriving at empty houses, myself.” I said no, I liked an empty house.

In narrative, the reporting verb is usually in the past tense. In this case, certain changes are normally made in converting from direct speech. The change of tense of the verb follows the rules of the sequence of tenses.

The sequence of tenses is the principle in accordance with which the tense in a subordinate clause 'follows' or is adjusted to that of the main clause; thus, in general, when the main clause has a simple present, present perfect, or future, the subordinate clause has a present tense (primary sequence); when the main clause has a simple past or past perfect, the subordinate clause has a past (primary sequence).

Direct speech		Indirect speech
(1) present		past
(2) past		past perfect
(3) present perfect		past perfect
(4) future		future-in-the-past

(1) “They can sleep in this room”.		She suggested that they could sleep in that room.
(2) “I moved here two years ago”.		He explained that he had moved there two years before.
(3) “Our team has won”.		They claimed that their team had won.
(4) “I will ring you tomorrow”.		She promised that she would ring him the next day.

Occasionally, however, the tense is not adjusted.

Note:

The rules of tense sequence are observed in clauses of second, third, etc. grade of subordination. Yet the choice of the tense is determined here by the tense of the clause to which it is subordinated: e.g. Awkwardly, with kindness, he asked me about my studies. He said that Ann had told him how I was working.

4.27 Exceptions

There are three exceptions to the rules of tense sequence.

Past perfect verbs in direct speech are not changed in indirect speech:

‘I had left before they arrived.’

He said (that) he had left before they (had) arrived.’

Modal verbs which have only one form must, need, ought, should do not normally change. But must can also be reported as had to:

		must
‘You must go.’	She said that they		go.
		had to
‘You need courage.’	He asserted that I need courage.
‘Bob ought to know her.’	Dick confirmed that Bob ought to know her.
‘You should be more careful.’	I told him he should be more careful.

When the idea expressed in the reported statement can also be applied to situations which still exist in the present, there is no need to change the tense:

‘The earth goes round the sun.’		Galileo proved that the earth goes round the sun.
‘Force only invites force.’		He replied that force only invites force.
I’m only 18.		She told me the other day that she’s only 18.

However, past tenses are also possible in these cases and the following conversation would sound quite natural.

‘How old are you?’ – ‘I beg your pardon?’ – ‘I asked how old you were.’

‘Where’s Anthony?’ – ‘The Japanese servant told me he was at some inn. Having dinner, I suppose.’

In sentences like these, English speakers often use present tenses if they feel that they are reporting facts; past tenses are preferred if the speaker is not sure of the truth of what he reports. Compare:

She told me she’s getting married next June. (And I believed her.)

She told me she was getting married next June. (It may be true, it may not.)

Note:

[a] ‘Indirect’ (reported) speech as is used here includes unspoken mental activity when the reporting verbs ‘think, believe, feel’, etc. are used: e.g. But she had thought she had closed the door; Jennie had realized that she had won.

[b] Frequently, there is a change from ‘this/these’ to ‘that/those’, from ‘here’ to ‘there’, from ‘now’ to ‘then’, and etc., but there are no exact rules for changing these words: one uses whatever expressions will make the meaning clear in the situation.

[c] Notice that only ‘I thought you were a gentleman’ (And now I see you are not.) is acceptable if it is intended to mean that the thinking was untruthful.

4.28 Voice

Voice is a grammatical category which shows in what relation the subject is placed to the action expressed by the predicate verb. There are two voice forms in English: active and passive forms (sees :: is seen). The passive voice form is analytical. It comprises the auxiliary verb be followed by participle II of the notional verb.

ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
writes	is written
is writing	is being written
wrote	was written
was writing	was being written
will write	will be written
has written has been writing	has been written
had written had been writing	had been written
will have written will have been writing	will have been written
would write would be writing	would be written
would have written	would have been written

The active voice form indicates that the subject of the sentence denotes the doer of the action expressed by the predicate:

We have already discussed it.

The passive voice form shows that the subject of the sentence is affected by the action expressed by the predicate verb. The doer of the action, if mentioned, is expressed by a noun (or pronoun) preceded by the preposition by.

It has already been discussed (by us).

The possibility of using a given verb in the passive voice correlates with the division of verbs into subjective and objective.

Subjective verbs do not require an object and are associated only with the subject: come, go, fall, etc.

Objective verbs require one or two objects: see, laugh (at), give, etc. The majority of objective verbs can be used in the passive voice form.

There are the following main correspondences between the subject of the passive construction and the object of the active construction.

The subject of the passive construction corresponds to the non-prepositional object of the active construction. The object mentioned is sole object in the given construction.

Many people have been arrested for giving out leaflets.

Cf.: They have arrested many people.

The subject of the passive construction corresponds to one of the two non-prepositional objects of the active construction. There are two main variants:

a) the subject corresponds to the direct object of the active construction:

The house was shown to me. Cf.: They showed me the house; A pair of sandals was bought for Johny (by mother). Cf.: Mother bought Johny a pair of sandals.

As seen from the examples above, the indirect object of the active construction often becomes prepositional in the passive construction (mainly with to and for).

There are a number of verbs in English which take two direct objects. Here belong such verbs as ask, answer, envy, forgive.

As a rule it is the object denoting a person that functions as subject in constructions with these verbs.

I was asked a question. Cf.: He asked me a question;

He was answered nothing. Cf.: They answered him nothing.

The verb forgive admits of two variants: You will not be forgiven your rudeness; Your rudeness will not be forgiven. Cf.: They will not forgive you your rudeness.

b) the subject corresponds to the indirect object of the active construction:

He was awarded the prize. Cf.: They awarded him the prize.

He was given a book. Cf.: They gave him a book.

The subject of the passive construction corresponds to the prepositional object of the active construction. This correspondence is common when the active construction contains only one object:

He needed to feel that he was listened to. Cf.: He needed to feel that they listened to him.

If, however, the prepositional object is preceded by a non-prepositional object it is the latter which usually functions as subject in the passive construction:

The problem was explained to me. Cf.: He explained the problem to me.

In a number of set expressions containing a non-prepositional object and a prepositional object either of the objects may become the subject of the passive construction:

He was not taken notice of; No notice was taken of him. Cf.: They took no notice of him; Great care was taken of his books; His books were taken great care of. Cf.: They took great care of his books.

The subject of the passive construction corresponds to the complex object of the active construction. Accordingly the subject of the passive construction is also complex. Its first part precedes the predicate whereas the second part follows it:

He was heard to mention it. Cf.: They heard him mention it;

He was seen walking across the field. Cf.: They saw him walking across the field.

In the four types of correspondences between the subject of the passive construction and the object of the active described above the object was not expressed by a clause. If the predicate verb of the active construction takes a subordinate clause as object the subject of the passive construction is expressed by the so-called anticipatory it:

It was agreed that each member would invite a guest. Cf.: They agreed that each member would invite a guest.

It should be mentioned that a number of objective verbs do not have a passive. Here belong resemble, suit, possess and the like. They do not have a passive because they do not express actions affecting objects.

In a number of cases a verb can be used in the passive form in one meaning but cannot be used in the passive form in another meaning. For instance, hold and have cannot be used in the passive when they mean “contain” and “possess” respectively:

The house held six flats; He has an interesting book.

Yet the same verbs can be used in the passive when they denote actions:

The meeting was held at ten o'clock; Dinner can be had at any reasonable time.

4.29 Choice of the passive

The passive is generally used in the following instances:

When the doer of the action is unknown or cannot be easily stated:

The city is well supplied with water.

When one takes a greater interest in the thing done than in the doer of the action:

The deputation then made its way to Downing Street where a petition carrying 40,000 signatures was handed in.

When the doer of the action is not mentioned for some special reason (tact or delicacy of feeling): You have been told so many times not to touch these things.

The mentioning of the 1^st person is avoided in scientific writing:

This book of reading is compiled to meet the needs of students taking a course in English grammar.

Note:

In informal style, ‘get’ is often combined with participle II to make a vivid expression with passive meaning that emphasises the action involved: e.g. Be careful so that you won’t get hurt.

In a few cases, mostly with personal pronouns, the indirect object may occur after a passive voice form without a preposition: e.g. That lesson was taught him when he was quite young.

4.30 Mood

Mood is a grammatical category of the verb which expresses modality, i.e. relation of the action denoted by the predicate to reality from the speaker’s point of view.

Finite verbs have three moods: the indicative, the imperative and the subjunctive. Non-finite verbs have no mood distinctions.

4.31 The indicative mood

Verbs in the indicative mood are inflected for three primary tenses (present, past, future), three secondary tenses (present perfect, past perfect, future perfect), two aspects (common and continuous) and two voices (active and passive).

The indicative mood has a factual meaning. It represents an action as a fact or an event which is in close relation with reality.

The sun rises in the east (a fact); I shall not go to the country, if it rains (a real condition).

The indicative mood forms do not necessarily express actions which are true to fact or actually take place in reality. In some cases the issue of truth is only assumed by the speaker.

“I’ve seen to it,” he said, but everyone knew it was not true.

4.32 The imperative mood

The imperative mood has practically one form, the stem of the verb, without endings for tense or number.

Stop; Read on; Look it up in a dictionary.

The auxiliary do not (don’t) is used to form the negative.

Don’t be late, please.

In the imperative there is no tense distinction, and only very rarely the continuous or ‘get’ + participle II forms occur.

Be preparing the dinner when he comes in; Get washed.

The imperative mood represents an action as a command or request. It is a direct expression of the speaker’s will.

The pronoun you is understood but not normally used. To specify the people who have to obey the command a second or third person subject can be put in front of the verb in the imperative (note that you is stressed in this case):

You take this tray, and you take that one; Jack and Susan, stand over there; Somebody open the door.

Elsewhere, a command with you has a tone of impatience.

You mind your own business; You be quiet.

Another form of impatient command begins with will: e.g. Will you be quiet! Although this has the grammatical form of a question, its falling intonation gives it the force of a command.

Note:

Commands sound abrupt unless toned down by markers of politeness such as ‘please’: e.g. Please eat up your dinner; Shut the door, please. Even this only achieves a minimum degree of tentativeness; a more tactful form of request can only be arrived at if one changes the command into a question or a statement: e.g. Will you shut the door, please?; I wonder if you would kindly shut the door; I wonder whether you would mind shutting the door.

The tags ‘why don’t you’ and ‘will you’ (after a negative command) can tone down a command: e.g. Come in, why don’t you?; Don’t be late, will you (?). But after a positive command, ‘will you’ has rising intonation, and usually expresses impatience: e.g. Sit down, will you (?).

4.33 The subjunctive mood

What we understand by the subjunctive mood includes two entirely different kinds of forms, synthetical and analytical, united by the same grammatical meaning of irreality.

The synthetical forms of the subjunctive mood are partly survivals of the old simple subjunctive. They are called subjunctive I (e.g. We demand he come on time) and subjunctive II (e.g. I wish he came on time). The new analytical forms with the auxiliaries should and would have replaced the former simple subjunctive. They are known as the suppositional mood (e.g. I demand he should come on time) and the conditional mood (e.g. If he knew he would come in time).

Unlike the indicative which is a fact mood (e.g. I’m glad that John has agreed - a fact), the subjunctive may be called a thought mood (e.g. I wish John had agreed - a thought). The subjunctive presents an action as a non-fact, as something imaginary or desirable. It does not reflect an actual reality but shows events formed in the mind of the speaker as supposition, desire, volition, etc.: I would do it, if could (The fact is that the speaker cannot do it); If he were here! (But he is not here).

4.34 Subjunctive I

Subjunctive I has only one form which coincides with the stem of the verb; this means there is no regular indicative agreement between the subject and predicate verb in the third person singular present, and the present and past are indistinguishable.

Ann	insists (insisted,	I, we
		You	keep regular hours.
	will insist)	He, she, it,
		they

The negative is formed by putting not before the stem. The auxiliary do is never used.

The teacher recommends that the student not miss any classes.

Subjunctive I presents an action as problematic and desirable, but not contrary to fact.

Subjunctive I is normally used in ‘that’-clauses when the main clause contains an expression of recommendation, resolution, demand, and so on (e.g. we suggest/ require/ order, etc.; it is urgent/ important, advisable/ strange/ doubtful, etc.; the order/ request/ plan, etc. is).

The committee arranged that the visit be extended (object clause); It is requested that no one smoke in the hall (subject clause); The rule is that the students have at least one workbook between two (predicative clause); No one will accept your suggestion that we work extra hours (appositive attributive clause).

Occasionally, subjunctive I is used in conditional (1) and concessive (2) clauses which express a ‘real’ condition, i.e. a condition which leaves unresolved the question of the fulfilment or non-fulfilment of the action.

(1) If a political solution be found the economic climate will improve.

(2) Whatever be the reasons for it, we cannot tolerate disloyalty.

Subjunctive I is common in American English: e.g. She repeated her request that he join them that evening (M. Wilson); ... so necessary was it to her love that she attract the attention of her distant child (Th.Wilder).

Until quite recently in British English subjunctive I was chiefly found in formal style: e.g. It is essential that this fact be remembered (Ch. Dickens); I propose that the Board withdraw (J. Galsworthy), whereas in less formal contexts it was replaced by the suppositional mood or infinitive.

In present-day British English the use of subjunctive I is growing wider. It is gaining ground in informal style: e.g. “I suggest we wait a while” (I. Murdoch).

Subjunctive I is also found in certain set expressions which are all formal and rather elevated or archaic; e.g.

Success attend you!	Да сопутствует Вам успех!
Long live the Queen!	Да здравствует Королева!
So be it.	Пусть так и будет.
Come what will/may, ...	Будь, что будет, ...
Be this/that as it may, ...	Как бы то ни было, …
Heaven forbid that ...	Боже упаси, чтобы ...
Suffice it to say that ...	Достаточно сказать, что ...
Far be it from me to criticize, but ...	Я далек от того, чтобы критиковать, но ...
The powers that be …	Власти предержащие…
If need be …	В случае необходимости…

Note:

Subjunctive I is used in certain imprecations: e.g. Damn (it)! «Леший побери!»; Confound it! (=God destroy it!) «Проклятье!»; Manners be hanged! «Долой всякие церемонии!»

In modern English there is a tendency to replace subjunctive I by the indicative: e.g. It is essential that nuclear weapons be banned. It is essential that nuclear weapons are banned. This substitution is avoided, however, in cases when a difference in meaning may arise. Cf.: I insist that he take the medicine «Я настаиваю, чтобы он принял лекарство» and I insist that he takes the medicine «Я утверждаю, что он принимает лекарство».

4.35 The suppositional mood

The suppositional mood has only one form, ‘should + infinitive’ in all persons.

It is (was) odd	I, we	should go there.
	You
	He, she, it
	they

Certain patterns admit of a perfect infinitive which denotes priority.

It is impossible that they should have said it; I am sorry she should have liked it; They feared that something should have happened to him.

The suppositional mood expresses a problematic action, a sort of supposition made by the speaker, in some cases a sense of obligation, i.e. the idea that something must be done, or is important. This happens after volitional verbs like command, order, insist, request, suggest, recommend (e.g. He insisted that the contract should be read aloud) and after emotive adjectives like important, essential, necessary, eager, anxious (e.g. We’re anxious that everything should go smoothly).

The suppositional mood is also used in subordinate clauses in sentences which express personal reactions to events, for instance, with words like natural, interesting, amazing, sorry, it is a shame (in these cases should is more common with a perfect infinitive, it is the so-called past suppositional).

I was shocked that she shouldn’t have invited her sister.

The suppositional mood occurs in different types of subordinate clauses:

subject clauses which are often postponed by an introductory it.

That such a chance should have taken place was incredible;

It’s dreadful that he should have been killed;

predicative clauses

The order is that the students should be dismissed;

object clauses

I was anxious that she should do less;

appositive clauses

There’s no reason why they shouldn’t make a good living here; The idea that he should see the play made her happy;

clauses of purpose

I shall do it so that she should not worry;

clauses of cause

I had got the car out early in case I should get lost on the way;

clauses of result

I didn’t see why I should pay out so many guineas per week so that Antonia should question Palmer about his childhood;

clauses of ‘real’ condition

Should the economic climate improve, consider the expansion (=If the economic climate should improve, consider the expansion.)

The suppositional occasionally occurs in simple sentences with the structure of a conditional clause.

And supposing that he should not speak to her nor she to him. Impossible! Ridiculous! Terrible! (= And if he should not speak ...)

Note:

Clauses of purpose and object clauses are occasionally introduced by the now archaic and very formal conjunction ‘lest’ (= in order that ... not ...). In this case ‘should + infinitive’ is used in the affirmative as ‘lest’ has a negative meaning: e.g. He hid the letter lest his father should read it; She feared lest she should be blamed.

The suppositional which occurs in conditional clauses is slightly formal or literary and suggests tentative conditions. It is rendered in Russian by случайно, если окажется, все же, когда-нибудь, если вам случится. The construction which has subject-predicate inversion without a conjunction “Should the economic climate improve, ...” is rather literary in tone, and can always be replaced by an ‘if’-construction.

The suppositional can usually be replaced by the indicative without much difference of meaning. Cf.: I am surprised that he should feel lonely (= he feels); He recommended that the title of the article should be changed (= the title was changed).

4.36 The conditional mood

The conditional mood has two analytical forms: should + infinitive; would + infinitive. The auxiliary should was normally used with a first person subject (singular and plural), whereas would generally occurred with second and third person subjects. In present-day English would (or its contracted form ‘d) can be used in all persons. But it can be replaced, optionally, by should with a first person subject.

But for John	I, we	would/should go
	you
	he, she, it,	would go
	they

The infinitive can be non-perfect and perfect. The forms would/should + non-perfect infinitive indicate contemporary unreality, i.e. unreal meaning in the present or future. They are called the present conditional.

In your place, he would take it now; I wouldn’t say this unless I were pretty sure.

Past unreality, i.e. unreal meaning in the past, is indicated by the forms would/should + perfect infinitive which are called the past conditional.

Otherwise, he would have sold his tape-recorder last year; It would then have been possible to deceive you, though whether they would have done so I don’t know.

The conditional mood expresses contingent actions, i.e. actions dependent on a certain unreal condition.

“He would smoke too much if I didn’t stop him;”

“Bledyard would have done it for nothing,” said Nan.

The unreal condition can be explicit (expressed) or implicit (implied). Explicit conditions are expressed by conditional and concessive clauses or by a prepositional phrase but for ... used in the sense of ‘negative condition’: If it were not for Vesta she would have sought some regular outside employment; If I had not appeared there would have been a quarrel; Had the circumstances been different the government would have acted swiftly; I should fail in the subject even though I passed all the tests; But for the classes she would stay in bed (= If it were not for the classes ... ; If there were no classes ...).

Implicit conditions are understood from a context.

I’d be glad to see you again (if you dropped in);

He would let me know (if he were aware of it);

She is having classes or/otherwise we should meet her in the common room (= If she had no classes we should meet her in the common room);

What would I ever do without you? (= What would I do if you were not here?)

The conditional mood is chiefly used in main clauses of complex sentences with unreal conditional clauses (1) and in simple sentences with an unreal condition implied (2).

(1) It would have been so much better if you had stayed;

(2) You wouldn’t believe it.

Note:

Occasionally, the conditional mood is used in subordinate clauses. Being implied an unreal condition in such cases can be developed into a conditional clause subordinated to the clause containing the conditional mood: e.g. You know as well as I do that any such talk would be insincere (... that any such talk would be insincere if it took place).

The auxiliaries ‘would’ and ‘should’ can be replaced by modals: e.g. If wishes were horses beggars might ride; If I saw her I could not tell her the truth - and neither could I bear to lie to her face-to-face.

4.37 Subjunctive II

The conditional mood used in main clauses is frequently combined with subjunctive II in subordinate clauses.

conditional s. II

I shouldn’t worry if I were you; The plan was to rob the safe, and if we

s.II s.II conditional

were seen - whoever saw us would have to g о.

Subjunctive II present has the forms homonymous with the past indicative.

I wish	I, we
(wished,	you	stopped crying.
will wished)	he, she, it
	they

Subjunctive II present of the verb be is were which occurs even with a 1^st or 3^rd person singular subject.

	I, we
It is	you	were of help.
(was) as if	he, she, it
	they

In less formal style of present-day English the ordinary past tense was can replace were with 1^st and 3^rd person singular subjects.

He spoke to me as if I was deaf; It's time science was brought into the front line.

Note that the form of subjunctive II present is only identical with the past tense. It has nothing to do with past time. Its reference is to present or future time. Subjunctive II present indicates contemporary unreality, i.e. unreal meaning in the present or future.

If we had enough money, I would buy a radio today/tomorrow.

Past time when combined with unreality is expressed by subjunctive II past which is homonymous with the past perfect of the verb.

	I, we
I wish	you	had stopped crying.
(wished,	he, she, it,
will wish)	they

Subjunctive II past indicates past unreality/. i.e. unreal meaning in the past.

Subjunctive II is hypothetical in meaning. It is used to talk about events which are not certain to happen - which one hopes will happen, or imagines might happen, or wants to happen.

Perhaps you’d tell me if we had dinner together tonight; If against the operation and she died, how face her mother and the doctor afterwards?; I wish those three old women would clear out.

Subjunctive II is found in subordinate clauses of different types:

object clauses

after the verb wish

I wish you hadn’t stopped your German;

after verbs of judgement expressing negative or doubtful meaning when followed by the subordinators if or whether

Then I wondered if I were going mad;

in formal style after the connectors SUPPOSE and IMAGINE

Suppose he wrote you, would you answer?

after the expressions would rather and would sooner, the latter being informal

I’d rather/sooner you kept quiet about this;

predicative clauses

She looked as if she had been up all night;

clauses of manner and comparison

You speak of it as if it were a work of art;

clauses of unreal condition

I should be mad with rage if I were you;

clauses of concession

However much advice you gave him he would do exactly what he wants.

Subjunctive II occurs after the impersonal expressions it is/was as if, it seems/seemed (as if) and it is (high) time:

It is as if they had talked in detail for a long time; It seemed he knew the way; It’s time the day was over.

Subjunctive II is occasionally used in simple sentences which have the structure of a conditional clause. They open with intensified equivalents of if: if only; oh. if; oh, that, typically used to express a wish, especially in exclamations.

If only the work would go right (subjunctive II of the verb ‘will’ used for emphasis); Oh, that I could be with you again!

Note:

Only ‘were’ is acceptable in ‘as it were’ (= so to speak): e.g. Jim Radcliffe became our idol, as it were, the man we all wanted to be; ‘were’ is usual in ‘if I were you’.

In object clauses after the verb ‘wish’ referring to the present or future, subjunctive II of the verb ‘will’ is used to express regret or annoyance. Note, that it can be used if the subjects of the clauses are different: e.g. I wish she would come. “Хоть бы она пришла!”; I wish you would stop it. “Да перестань же ты наконец”.

In conditional clauses to express hypothetical future the construction ‘were to + infinitive’ is used: e.g. Supposing he were to destroy everything in order to be with her, would it turn out in the end to be a disaster? This construction is slightly formal or literary and suggests tentative conditions.

“Were” and “had” could begin an unreal conditional clause in formal and somewhat literary style: e.g. Were the circumstances different we should invite him to the conference; Had he been able to vote the outcome would have been a tie. This construction is more common with ‘had’, but in either of the cases it can be replaced by an ‘if’-clause.

For a hypothetical circumstance we use the verb ‘wish’ which expresses regret rather than wish. “I wish he went” means “I am sorry he doesn’t go” and it is translated into Russian as “Жаль, что он не идет”.

The construction ‘It is not/was not/will not be as if/as though smb did/had done smth’ is emphatic: e.g. It’s not as if I were twenty. “Ведь мне не двадцать лет”; It won’t be as if you were a party to it. “Ведь ты же не будешь соучастником”.

4.38 Tenses of the subjunctive

The suppositional and conditional moods as well as subjunctive II have two tenses: present and past.

The present forms of the subjunctive are used to talk about events which refer to the moment of speech or follow it.

It is/was/will be natural that he should work hard; They have agreed/agreed that she should meet them after lunch; If they could just see me now!; You feel/felt/ will feel as if you were ill after the injection; In her place, I’d strongly disapprove of you; It would be months before he was fit for work, if, indeed, he were ever fit for work again.

The past forms are used to talk about events which are prior to the moment of speech.

It is/was natural that he should have worked hard last year; He is/was/will be surprised that her look should have reassured him; If they could have seen me yesterday; You feel/felt/will feel as if you had been ill (and were recovering your strength); Twenty years ago I would have strongly disapproved of you; If he had been fit for work, his family would have been kept in bread.

In the majority of conditional sentences events described by subjunctive II and conditional have the same time reference: present (1), future (2) or past (3).

If I had time I should go on a short holiday right now;

If I were invited again, I’d join them in a few minutes;

If I had dropped the idea at the start everything would have been different.

But tenses of the conditional mood in the main clause and subjunctive II in the subordinate clause need not be necessarily parallel. Any combination of forms is possible to express the speaker’s exact meaning. We can divide all these cases into two groups: neutral (basic) and mixed.

The neutral group comprises sentences with the same tense in either of the clauses.

I wouldn’t scold him (now) if he worked properly (every day);

I wouldn’t have scolded him (yesterday) if he had worked properly (then).

The mixed group comprises sentences with any other combination of tenses.

I wouldn’t scold him (now) if he had worked properly (yesterday); I wouldn’t have scolded him yesterday if he worked properly (every day).

All these sentences are rendered in Russian as “Я бы его не ругала, если бы он работал как следует”. In Russian only the time indicators and the context can make the time reference clear.

In converting direct to indirect speech there is no adjustment of the subjunctive forms in the reported clause.

‘Even if our document on economic policy was perfect, it would be not good enough for the Special Congress to adopt it’, said the Trade Union leader. The Trade Union leader asserted that even if their document on economic policy was perfect, it would be not good enough for the Special Congress to adopt it.

The present indicative and the subjunctive can be used interchangeably in clauses subordinated to those with the conditional and subjunctive II.

I shouldn't think that you have a good chance.

I shouldn't think that he had a good chance.

If you only knew how wrong you are!

If you only knew how wrong you were!

Subjunctive Mood Patterns

Type of subclause	Main clause			Conjunction	Subordinate clause	Mood
subject clause introduced by the anticipatory ‘it’	it is/was		necessary urgent requested arranged a pity	that	smb should do smth smb do smth smb should do smth smb should have done smth	suppositional suppositional/ subjunctive I
Predicative clause	smb/smth		looks (ed) seems (ed) is (was)	as if/ as though	smb did smth smb had done smth	subjunctive II
Predicative clause	the	order request plan suggestion	is/was	that	smb should do smth smb do smth	suppositional/ subjunctive I
Object clause	Smb		suggests (ed) insists (ed) arranges (ed)	that	smb should do smth smb do smth	suppositional/ subjunctive I
	Smb		wishes (ed)	that	smb did smth smb had done smth smb would do smth	subjunctive II
	Smb		fears (ed) is/was afraid	that / lest	smb should do smth smb should have done smth	suppositional

Clause of unreal condition	Smb		would do smth	if	smb did smth smb had done smth	subjunctive II
Clause of real condition	Smb		will do smth	if	smb should do/do smth	suppositional/ subjunctive I
Clause of purpose	Smb		does smth will do smth did smth	so that/ lest	smb should do smth smb do smth	suppositional/ subjunctive I
Clause of comparison	Smb		does smth will do smth did smth	as if / as though	smb did smth smb had done smth	subjunctive II
Clause of cause	Smb		fears to do smth	lest	smb should do / do smth	suppositional/ subjunctive I
Clause of concession	Smb		will do smth	whatever / however	smb should do / do smth	suppositional/ subjunctive I
Clause of concession					smb did smth smb had done smth	subjunctive II
Clause of result	Smb		does smth	so that	smb should do/ do smth	suppositional/ subjunctive I
Appositive clause	The		order suggestion plan	that	smb should do smth smb do smth	suppositional/ subjunctive I

4.39 Modals used as auxiliaries

We have considered above only those instances in which subjunctive forms proper are used; but in many patterns we may have a subjunctive equivalent formed with could or might.

The auxiliary would in the conditional mood form of the main clause can be replaced by the subjunctive mood form of the modals can and may:

If you parked your car there, we could (=would) keep an eye on it; But for John, we could have lost the match; You'd better put your overcoat on, or you might catch a cold; With his office training he might find a job with us.

As is seen, could and might are used here for hypothetical possibility. In some cases, they are interchangeable:

If someone were to make a mistake, the whole plan could/might be ruined.

May/can + infinitive are used to express problematic actions similarly to the suppositional mood. They are found in clauses of purpose (1) and in object clauses after expressions of fear in the main clause (2).

I’ll give his telephone number, so that you may/ с an call him when you arrive; He gave me his telephone number, so that I might/could call him when I arrived;

I'm afraid that the house may/can catch fire; She worried that she might/could disturb them.

4.40 Modal verbs

M o d a l v e r b s are a class of semi-auxiliary verbs that combine with the infinitive of a notional verb to make a verb phrase with a wide variety of meanings.

Modal verbs are eight in number.

can may will shall must need dare ought

could might would should

Some modals exist in one form only. CAN, MAY, WILL, SHALL, WILL have three forms: the present and the past indicative, and the subjunctive, the latter being homonymous with the past tense forms.

The modals express various moods and attitudes towards a possible state or action, such as possibility, probability, obligation, necessity, and the like.

The modals are traditionally called defective in that:

(a) they have no inflection –S in the 3^rd person singular;

(b) they lack non-finite and analytical forms (the future forms, the perfect forms, the passive forms, the aspect forms);

(d) all of them except OUGHT, are followed by the infinitive without the particle TO;

(e) all of them form the negative and the interrogative forms without the auxiliary DO.

The verbs NEED and DARE used as modals are confined to negative and interrogative sentences.

4.41 Can

The modal can is used to express:

Physical or intellectual ability; in this meaning it is used only with the indefinite infinitive in all kinds of sentences.

Can you lift this box?; He can swim under water; No one could tell the answer to this question; She could read when she was four.

Possibility due to circumstances; in this meaning it is also used with the indefinite infinitive.

We can sit at home and watch football matches in comfort, thanks to television; Lightning can be dangerous; Nobody could help me.

The subjunctive form could + indefinite infinitive is used with a present or future time reference when there is an idea of condition.

He could do it if he wanted to; Could you get another job (if you left this one)?

The subjunctive form could + perfect infinitive is used for possibility in the past when

the possibility was unrealized:

I could have come earlier if you'd told me; I could have danced all night.

we don't know whether the possibility was realized or not:

The money has disappeared: Who could have taken it?; Keith could have gone off with some friends.

Doubt, uncertainty; in these meanings can/could is found in interrogative and negative sentences.

Can/could it be true? (Неужели это правда?); It can't/couldn't be true. (He может быть, чтобы это было так).

Note that the subjunctive could expresses a greater doubt.

Either can/can't or could/couldn't can be used when the deduction is made in the present.

Who brought the piano upstairs? – Perhaps it was Tom. – He can't/couldn't have done it by himself; Can/Could you have left your purse on the bus?

However, only could/couldn't must be used when the deduction is made in the past or when the event mentioned is disconnected from the present:

We were silent ... Could I have dropped my wallet in the shop?; A man answered the phone. I suppose it was her husband. – No, it couldn't have been her husband. He's been from London for months.

Depending on the time reference, can/could is used with different forms of the infinitive. Thus, if reference is made to the present, the indefinite (non-continuous) infinitive is found with verbs that cannot take the continuous form. With verbs that can take the continuous, the continuous infinitive is used.

Can/Could she be telling lies?; He can't/couldn't be cheating in the exam.

can + perfect infinitive is used to refer the action to the past.

Can he have said it? (Неужели он сказал это?); Не can ' t have said it. (He может быть, чтобы он сказал это. = Он не мог сказать этого.)

Request, offer, permission, prohibition; can/could is followed by the indefinite infinitive in all kinds of sentences.

Can I have the butter, please?; You can go now; Mum says we can't swim today.

Both, can I? and could I? are used for requests; could being more tentative. Compare:

Can I speak to Ivan?; Could I speak to Ivan?

Could you is used for a polite request as an alternative to would you?

Could you/Would you open the window?

Couldn't you? is also possible as a request which is less tentative and more persuasive.

Couldn't you possibly come another day?

Can/could with all persons in the affirmative expresses the idea of having permission.

It's not fair. Joey can stay up till ten and I have to go to bed at nine; The children asked whether they could go for a swim.

Can't/couldn't expresses prohibition.

You can't travel first-class ticket (=You are not allowed); The junior clerks couldn't use the front door (=weren’t allowed to).

Note:

[a] In cases where ability will exist only under certain conditions or within more or less definite temporal limit ‘shall/will be able to’ is normally used: e.g. By the time he finishes his course, he’ll be able to speak German well. (But not: *He can speak...); If I have a good sleep. I’ll beable to work out the problem. (But not: ...*I can work out the problem). With a present or past time reference ‘can’ and ‘be able to’ are interchangeable, though ‘be able to’ is slightly formal. Cf.: Sorry, I can’t do it; I’m sorry I’m nearly not able to do it. And another nuance: quite often ‘be able to’ has the sense of ‘be in a position to do smth’: e.g. I wasn’t able to ring you. I was at the meeting till 5 o’clock.

[b] To express strong doubt about an action not taking place (неужели кто-то не делал/не сделал что-то) one can use the expression to fail to do smth or verbs with the negative prefix dis- and mis-: e.g. He cannot have failed to visit then; Can she misunderstand them?

4.42 May

The modal may is used to express:

Possibility due to circumstances; in this meaning may/might is generally used in affirmative sentences and is followed by the indefinite infinitive.

From here you may go to London by bus or by car, but you can’t go by train; He said we might go by bus there.

The subjunctive form might + perfect infinitive shows that the action was not performed due to certain circumstances (might here is equivalent to would in the conditional mood pattern).

He might/would have come if he had a car.

Supposition implying uncertainty; in this meaning it occurs in affirmative and negative sentences with all forms of the infinitive. It is an alternative to perhaps or maybe.

May/might + indefinite or continuous infinitive expresses uncertainty about present or future actions.

The two parties may/might reach agreement today/tomorrow; She might still come; He may/might be waiting for you.

Though used interchangeably, may and might occasionally express different degrees of likelihood, the subjunctive form might emphasising the idea of uncertainty.

However, only might is to be used with a past time reference. Compare:

He said, ‘I may/might be late tonight’; He said that he might be late that night.

May/might is not used in interrogative sentences in the meaning of supposition. Instead we use such expressions as ‘Do you think ...?’ or ‘Is he likely ... ?’: e.g. Do you think she knows we’re here? (But not: *May she know ...?); Are we likely to meet any snakes? (But not: *May we meet any snakes?).

May/might + perfect/perfect continuous infinitive is used in speculations about past actions.

She may/might have come. (=It is possible that she came.);

I think she may/might have been waiting for us since morning.

Permission, request; in these meanings may is found in affirmative and interrogative sentences. In negative answers to questions May I? it is usually replaced by can't (the form may not is too formal).

Candidates may not take a book in the examination room;

Mary said that I might borrow her biro; May we smoke here? - Yes, you may. (No, you can't.).

A mild request or reproach in affirmative sentences. The subjunctive might is common here.

You may tell me what he said; You really might do something for them; You might have helped me.

4.43 Can and may compared

Both verbs can be used to express possibility due to circumstances. However, they are not interchangeable in this meaning for the following reasons:

Can is used to express a real possibility whereas the degree of possibility expressed by may is much smaller.

Don't dream of what may be, work for what can be; A fool may ask more questions than a wise man can answer.

In this meaning the use of may is restricted to affirmative sentences whereas can is found in all kinds of sentences.

He may/can meet them there; He can't meet them there.

Their time reference is also different. May refers only to the present or future; can/could may refer to the past as well.

She may/can find the book at the library; She may/ с an find the book at the library tomorrow; She could find the book at the library yesterday.

In the meaning of supposition the degree of doubt expressed by may and can is different. Compare:

He may not be right. = It is possible that he is right;

He can't be right. = It is impossible that he is right.

Both verbs can be used to express permission. The difference between them is rather that of style than of meaning, may being more formal than can which is commonly used in colloquial English. Besides, may in negative sentences expressing prohibition is not much used. Compare:

- Can we go home now?	- May I leave the classroom?
- Yes, you can/No, you can't.	- Yes, you may./No, you can't.

Note:

When we give permission we use ‘can’ and ‘may’, but not ‘could’ and ‘might’. (The latter suggest respect, and so they are more natural in asking for permission than in getting it.) E.g. Could I use your phone? - Yes, of course you can; Might I trouble you for a light? – You may indeed.

4.44 Must

The modal must is used to express:

Necessity, strong obligation; in this meaning it is followed by the indefinite infinitive referring the action to the present or future, or to no particular time.

It is getting late. I must go; Must I clean all the rooms?; We must make an early start tomorrow; Candidates must attempt all the questions.

The verb must in the meaning of necessity is found in affirmative and interrogative sentences; when used with a negative it has the meaning of prohibition: e.g. You mustn't move any of the papers on my desk.

Generally, when must is used, the obligation comes from the speaker: e.g. I want to do well in my exams so I must work hard (the speaker's own decision). If we talk about or report an obligation that comes from 'outside' (a regulation, or an order from somebody else, for example) must is possible, but have to is more common.

Farmers have to/must work hard (obligation imposed by force of circumstance); I must stay at home: my essay has to be finished by tomorrow; I have to cook the dinner. It’s my job.

Must has no past tense. Past necessity is expressed by had to, i.e. the past of ‘We must all keep together’, in direct speech, would be: ‘We all had to keep together’, though in indirect speech must can remain to refer the action to the present time even if the reporting verb is in the past.

He reminded us (that) we

must all = all had to

keep together.

In questions and negatives, the modal verb need, especially in British English, is a replacement for must; and, in informal style, have (got) to and a regular verb need can be used instead: Need you work so hard?; Have you got to work so hard?; We needn't/don't have to/don't need to hurry.

Deduction, i.e. a supposition implying a very high degree of probability, almost conviction (because it is logically necessary). When used in this meaning the verb must is synonymous with the modal words evidently, obviously, certainly, surely, or the phrases most likely, most probably and the like. Its meaning corresponds to the Russian modal phrase должно быть.

Must is only used in this way in affirmative sentences. In questions and negatives, we use can and can't instead.

That can't be the postman - it's only 7 o’clock; What do you think this letter can mean?

In this meaning must may be followed by different forms of the infinitive. If the reference is made to the present, the continuous infinitive is generally used.

You must be joking!; Oh, there's the boy. He must be still waiting for you.

However, with verbs which are not normally used in the continuous, the indefinite infinitive is used.

There’s the doorbell. It must be Roger; Mary must have some problem: she keeps crying; You must consider me ungrateful.

Must is used with the perfect infinitive for deductions about the past.

It must have been yesterday; We went to Kent. - That must have been nice.

Must in the meaning of supposition is not used with reference to the future. In this case it is replaced by its synonyms: e.g. Are you likely to be out late tonight?; He will probably come tomorrow.

To express supposition of negative character some other lexical means are used instead of must in the negative.

He must have failed to carry out the task; He must have misunderstood you; They must be unaware of that; She must have never guessed the truth; No one must have told him about it.

In a number of set-phrases the modal meaning of must is weakened.

I must be going; I must be off; You must come and see me some time; You must come and stay with us for the week-end (conversation formulas of invitation); I must tell you that ...; I must say ... (formulas used in speech-making).

Note:

[a] Official instructions often have 'must': e.g. An employee must fill in the form.

[b] ‘Must’ sometimes occurs in questions expecting a negative answer: e.g. Must you leave already? (=’surely you don’t have to’).

[c] In American English, ‘have to’ is an ordinary verb (used with ‘do’ in questions and negatives) which in fact has replaced ‘must’. This is also becoming common in British English. E.g. Do you have to do that? = Must you do that?

[d] The modal expression ‘be to’ is used to express necessity based on a previously arranged plan (e.g. I am to be there at four). The same verb serves to report orders or prohibitions (e.g. Tell her she is (not) to stand here). It can occasionally be used to give orders: parents often tell children to do things in this way (e.g. You are to do your homework before you watch television). 'Be to' + passive infinitive is common in notices and instructions (e.g. These tablets are to be kept out of the reach of children).

4.45 May and must compared

Both verbs are used to express supposition but they are not interchangeable in this meaning.

May denotes supposition implying uncertainty whereas must expresses supposition implying strong probability.

He may be a student of our college. His face seems familiar; He must be one of the students I examined the other day.

Both verbs are used to express prohibition in negative sentences. Note that the use of may not is rather rare; and must not is more emphatic.

Visitors may not/must not feed the animals.

In negative answers to questions asking for permission mustn't or can't are generally used.

May I put the television on?	No, you mustn't.
	No, you can' t.

4.46 Ought

The modal ought shows:

Duty or obligation

You really ought to tell her; You ought to have done that earlier.

What is advisable, desirable or right

There ought to be more buses during the rush hours; You ought (=’I advise you’) to see that new film.

Probability

Henry ought to be here soon – he left home at six;

That ought to be enough fish for three people.

Unlike other modals ought is followed by the infinitive with to.

You ought to see a dentist; He ought not to have agreed.

In negative sentences, not comes before to.

He ought not to go./He oughtn't to go.

Ought can be followed by a perfect infinitive to talk about the past.

I'm sorry – I ought to have phoned to tell you I was coming; He ought to have been a lawyer; She ought to have arrived at her office by now.

In echo construction, ought (not) to is used to replace an entire predicate.

Ought we not to go? - Yes, we ought to.

4.47 Shall and should

The modal shall expresses:

Obligation and compulsion. In this meaning it is used with the 2^nd and 3^rdperson subjects, but at present this use is restricted to formal style, and it often sounds rather old-fashioned.

You shall have an answer by tomorrow; We propose that each member of the club shall be asked to.

Offers, suggestions, and requests for instructions and advice. In this meaning shall is used with the 1st and 3^rd person subjects.

Shall I carry your bag?; Shall we go out for lunch?; What shall we do?; Shall he call you up or will you call back?

The modal shall is used only with the indefinite infinitive. In reported speech the past tense form should is used.

I asked if I should call for you; I asked the man whether the boy should wait.

The subjunctive form of the modal verb shall is should. The subjunctive should expresses:

Probability

It should be fun; The film should be ending soon; Should there be any difficulty in getting tickets?

Offers, suggestions, and requests for instructions and advice

Should I help you with your washing-up?; What do you think I should do?

Duty, obligation and similar ideas

People should drive more carefully; You really should ring Aunt Mary.

Should + perfect infinitive shows that a desirable action was not carried out. It has the additional meaning of reproach or regret.

He should have rung her himself; You shouldn’t have mentioned his name in her presence.

It corresponds to the Russian Вам не следовало.

Why should …? and How should …? contain the so-called emotional should. They express inability to understand mingled with reproach, irritation or anger.

Why should it get colder when you go up a mountain? You are getting nearer the sun; Why should I help him?; What’s Susan’s phone number? – How should I know?

4.48 Must, should and ought compared

All the three verbs are used to express obligation; must, however, sounds more forceful and peremptory. Ought and should express an obligation which may not be fulfilled. Compare:

You must be back by 2 o’clock and do some cleaning. (It is your duty); I ought to phone my parents tonight (“but probably I won’t have time”); All students should submit their work by a given date (“... but some of them don’t!”)

In most cases, both should and ought can be used with more or less the same meaning. There is, however, a very slight difference. When we use should, we give our own subjective opinion; ought has a rather more objective force, and is used when we are talking about laws, duties and regulations. Compare:

You ought to/ should go and see Mary some time; People ought to vote even if they don't agree with any of the candidates.

Both should and ought express obligation, advisability, desirability and are used when must would sound too peremptory. Compare:

You must do it at once.	Вы должны/обязаны сделать это немедленно.
You should do it at once.	Вам следует/нужно сделать это немедленно.
You ought to do it at once.	Вам следует/нужно сделать это немедленно.

The modals ought and should expressing probability can be regarded as weaker equivalents of must (=’certainty’). Compare:

Our guests must be home by now. (I am certain.)

Our guests

ought to

be home by now.

(They probably are,

but I’m not certain.)

should

Should is more frequent than ought. Must, however, seems to be in more frequent use than the other two verbs.

Note:

[a] ‘Ought’ and ‘should’ are not always interchangeable. In a sentence like ‘We ought to go and see Mary tomorrow, but I don’t think we will’ ‘should’ doesn’t sound right. It would be strange to give oneself advice and say that one was not going to follow it.

[b] ‘Ought’ (not) to’ is avoided in tag questions, since it sounds strange and formal. Many speakers therefore replace ‘ought’ by ‘should’ in question tags: e.g. We ought to wait for Harry, shouldn't we?

4.49 Will and would

The modal will is used to express:

Willingness, consent, an offer or a promise

Let him do what he will; Come when you will; If you will come this way, the manager will see you now; A good dictionary is, of course, indispensable to anyone who would know words and their use; I would be grateful if you would give me a little help.

Won't and wouldn't express the negative of willingness, i.e. refusal.

He won't/wouldn't take any notice.	(= He refuses/declines to take any notice.)
They wouldn't listen to me.	( = They refused ... )

Used in questions making request in conditional (‘if’) clauses will/would is often equivalent to please:

Will you come in?; Pass that box, if you would.

There is hardly any difference between the use of will and would here; the subjunctive would makes the request still more polite.

Insistence or inevitability. Used in this meaning will/would is always stressed.

He/'will have his own way (i.e. He insists on this); Accidents 'will happen (i.e. They are to be expected from time to time); I told you shouldn't but you 'would do it.

Habitual and characteristic actions

He will sit there hour after hour looking at the traffic go by; The plane will seat 500; The door won't shut; He would visit her every Sunday.

Probability or likelihood

This will be the book you're looking for; She will be about forty; You wouldn't know her; It would be about six when he got here.

The modality expressed here may be rendered in Russian by вероятно, должно быть.

4.50 Need

Need is used to express necessity.

The grammar of the verb need is inconsistent. It can occur (1) as a modal, behaving just like must, and (2) as a regular verb, behaving just like mind.

Need I bring this report to you at once?; He needn't worry; You needn't have come. The deal is off.

She needs support; He needed no second invitation; I didn't need to be told twice.

As a modal verb, need has only one form. It is followed by the infinitive without to. Need, as a modal, is restricted to interrogative and negative sentences.

Need you go yet? - No, I needn't.

In negative sentences, need expresses absence of necessity. The negative is not always associated with the verb, but may be found elsewhere in the sentence.

We needn't wait any longer; Nobody need ever know; I need hardly say that I agree with you.

Need + perfect infinitive indicates that although something may have occurred or been done in the past, it was or may have been unnecessary.

Need it have happened?; We needn't have hurried.

In reported speech need remains unchanged.

I told him he needn't come to the office on Saturday.

Note:

The regular verb ‘need’ is much more common than the modal ‘need’. The use of ‘need’ as a modal verb is mainly confined to its negative form “needn't”. Question forms like ‘Need we?’ and ‘Need he?’ sometimes sound unnatural in conversation. Cf.: Do we need to stay this evening?:: Need we stay this evening?

4.51 Dare

Like need, dare can be constructed (1) as a modal (with a bare infinitive and without the inflected forms) or (2) as a regular verb (with a ‘to’-infinitive, an -s inflection and past forms).

(1) Dare you question my honesty?; I dare not disobey the general's order.

(2) Do I dare to ask her?; I shall be surprised if he dares to tell them a lie; He actually dared to ask me for another loan.

Dare means ‘be brave enough, venture to do something’. As a modal, dare occurs in negative and interrogative sentences. I daren't point out his mistake; Dare he tell them what he knows?

Dare is a modal, with past reference, in ‘I never dare ask him’. In reported speech dare remains unchanged. I told him he dare not delay any longer.

Note:

[a] ‘Dare’, as a modal, is always quite formal. In informal style, other expressions are used instead.

[b] ‘Dare’ sometimes occurs in the past or with the auxiliary 'do/did' but without ‘to’ of the following infinitive, indicating that the speakers are somewhat unsure of its grammar (e.g. She dared not wait; Do we dare take a risk?).

* Predeterminers are words used before the article, see 2.1, 2.41

* You can use expressions such as ‘a piece of,’ ‘a bit of,’ or ‘an item of’ with the words marked with an asterisk* in the above list, to refer to one individual thing.

** Those marked with ** can be used in the singular, but the meaning is different; for example, ‘arms’ are weapons, but ‘an arm’ is a part of the body; ‘means’ – [pl tantum] the money that a person has: People should pay according to their means, but ‘means’ [count] (pl. means)– an action, an object or a system by which a result is achieved; a way of achieving or doing sth: Have you any means of identification?

*** Some of the pluralia tantum nouns can have a singular form when used in compounds: pyjama top, trouser leg.

* For reading rules of the plural inflection, see 2.7.

* The list of proper names using the definite article as their part is provided at the end of the section.

* Note the following exceptions: the Emperor Claudius, the Tsar Ivan the Terrible.

* The pronouns ‘what’ and ‘who’ which also belong to the class of substitutes are discussed in 1.24, 1.25, 7.14 f.

* For other functions of non-finite forms, see 5.1 f.

* For modal verbs, see 4.40 f.

* The “-s” inflection of verbs is the same in pronunciation and spelling as that used for the plural of nouns.

* For forms of irregular verbs, see 4.3

* For the simple present used to indicate future actions, see 4.9; for the present continuous used to indicate future actions, see 4.20

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