The use of the Future Perfect.
1. The Future Perfect is used to show that an action will already be completed by a certain time in the future.
I will have retired by the year 2020.
2. The Future Perfect can denote an action? which will begin before a definite moment in the future, will continue up to that moment and will be going on at that moment.
By this time next week I will have worked for the company
for 24 years.
We will have been married a year on June 25th.
31. The use of the Past Indefinite.
The Past Indefinite denotes an action performed within a period of time, which is already over. The action is cut off from the present. The time of the action may be indicated by adverbials of past time, such as yesterday, a week ago, last year, etc.
The sun came out a moment ago.
Miss Helstone stayed the whole evening. (Ch.Bronte)
The Past Indefinite is used to denote:
a) an action performed in the past.
Shakespeare died in 1616.
We went to the theatre last night.
When did she come?
b) a succession of past actions.
In this case the Past Indefinite is rendered in Russian by the past perfective.
He threw down his spade and entered the house.
c) repeated actions in the past.
In this case the Past Indefinite is rendered in Russian by the past imperfective.
He made an entry in his diary every night. (Bennett)
Sometimes used to denotes actions characterizing a person or action and states which lasted a long time.
I used to play tennis a lot but I don't play very often now.
Diane used to travel a lot. These days she doesn't go away so often.
32. The Perfect Continuous form denotes an action in progress, whose duration before a definite moment in the present, past or future is expressed. It is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be in one of the perfect tenses and Participle I of the notional verb.
1. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive is used to denote an action which began in the past, has been going on up to the present and is still going on.
Ever since I saw you last I have been thinking, thinking.
2. The Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive denotes an action, which was recently in progress but is no longer going on at the present moment.
You are not well today. You look distressed. You have
been weeping. (Dickens)
1. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive denotes an action, which began before a definite moment in the past, continued up to that moment and was still going on at that moment.
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Our game of tennis was interrupted. We'd been playing for about half an hour when it started to rain very heavily.
2. The Past Perfect Continuous Exclusive denotes an action which was no longer going on at a definite moment in the past, but it had been in progress not long before.
Ken gave up smoking two years ago. He'd been smoking
for 30 years.
The Future Perfect Continuous denotes an action which will begin before a definite moment in the future, will continue up to that moment and will be going on at that moment.
In ten minutes we’ll have been waiting for the bus for
exactly an hour.
33. The Passive Voice is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the required form and Participle II of the notional verb.
The Passive Voice can be used:
a) without the doer of the action being mentioned for some special reasons (tact or delicacy of feeling).
Enough has been said here of a subject which will be treated more fully in a subsequent chapter.
b) when the doer of the action is unknown or unimportant
A lot of money was stolen in the robbery.
c) with the doer of the action being mentioned.
This house was built by my grandfather.
Uses of the Passive Voice peculiar to the English language.
1. The verbs to advise, to allow, to ask, to award, to deny, to envy, to forbid (rare), to forgive, to give, to grant, to offer, to order, to pay, to prescribe, to promise, to refuse, to show, to teach, to tell are used in the Passive Voice.
When I came a telegram was given to me.
A good job was offered to me but I had to turn it down.
The patient was prescribed a strict diet.
2. The Passive Voice is possible with intransitive verbs used with prepositions: to account for, to agree upon, to allude to, to arrive at (a conclusion, agreement, decision), to call for, to call upon, to comment upon, to count upon, to depend on (upon), to dispose of, to fire at, to hear of, to insist on (upon), to interfere with, to laugh at, to listen to, to look after, to look at, to look down upon ( смотреть на кого -либо сверху вниз ), to look up to (смотреть на кого -либо снизу вверх ), to put up with (примириться ), to read to, to refer to, to rely on, to run over, to send for, to speak about (of), to stare at, to talk about (to, over).
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You have been a good deal talked about.
At last an agreement was arrived at.
3. The following verbal phraseological units can be used in the Passive Voice: to find fault with ( придираться к кому -либо ), to lose sight of (терять из виду ), to make a fool of smb., to make fun of, to make use of (использовать ), to pay attention to, to put an end to (положить конец ), to set fire to, to take notice of, to take care of.
It’s all taken care of.
You are being made a fool of, that’s all.
The boat was soon lost sight of.
4. Quite peculiar is the case when the subject of the passive predicate corresponds to the Russian adverbial modifier. This is the case with the intransitive verbs to live and to sleep with the preposition in.
The occupant of the room was fully clothed, though the bed had been slept in.
5. There are a number of transitive verbs in English, which correspond to intransitive verbs in Russian. They are: to affect, to answer, to assist, to attend, to follow, to help, to influence, to join, to watch.
She was greatly affected by the scene.
The report was followed by a discussion
34. The combination to be+ Participle II can denote an action, in which case it is a simple predicate expressed by a verb in the Passive Voice. It can also denote a state, then it is a compound nominal predicate consisting of a link verb and a predicative.
It was very hot in the room because all the windows were
closed (nominal).
The door was closed at seven o’clock by the porter. (verbal)
It is sometimes difficult to discriminate between the verb to be+ Participle II as a simple predicate and as a compound nominal predicate.
1. We have the Passive Voice (simple predicate) in the following cases:
a) when the doer of the action is indicated (as a rule).
Other possibilities were considered by my colleagues.
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b) when there is an adverbial modifier of place, frequency and, as a rule, of time.
The whole affair was soon forgotten.
The library door was opened at midnight.
c) when the verb is used in the Continuous or in the Perfect form.
What sort of research is being done, and who is doing it?
d) When the verb to be is associated with Participle II of non-terminative verbs like to love, to like, to respect, to honour, to hate:
He was most highly esteemed by Mr. Darcy. (Austen)
She is loved by all her friends.
e) When the predicate is in the Future tense (or Future in the Past)
The entrance door will be closed at seven.
2. We have a compound nominal predicate in the following cases:
a) usually when the verb to be is in the Present or Past Perfect Inclusive and the notional verb admits of the Continuous form.
Why don't you go and take the documents? They are ready.
b) when Participle II denotes a state of mind.
Elisabeth was distressed. (Austen)
I was surprised to see Mr. Darcy in town last month. (Austen)
35. The verb must has only one form. Must is used in present- time contexts with reference to the present and future and in combination with the Perfect Infinitive it refers to the past. In past- time contexts this form is used only in reported speech, i. e. the rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed with must.
And now I must go back to my social duties. (Voynich)
Must expresses obligation, necessity, an urgent command or prohibition, and a supposition bordering on assurance.
1. Obligation, necessity, duty (from the speakers point of view).
(a) due to circumstances
He must write. He must earn money. (London)
(b) arising out of the nature of man and consequently inevitable.
All experience tended to show that man must die. (Galsworthy)
2. A command, an urgent (emphatic) request or a prohibition. In this meaning it is used only with the Indefinite Infinitive.
You must leave the room at once!
3. Probability or supposition bordering on assurance.
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Surely, they don't want me for myself. Then they must want me for something else. (London)
John must be at the station by now.
In negative sentences supposition is expressed by means of the modal word evidently.
Evidently, she did not know my address.
36. The modal expression to have + Infinitive is used in three tenses: the Present Indefinite, the Past Indefinite and the Future Indefinite. It is not a defective verb and can have all the necessary finite forms and verbals.
I have to get up at six every day.
I shall have to reconsider my position.
To have+ Infinitive expresses an obligation or necessity arising out of circumstances. Its meaning is close to that of to be obliged. It is often rendered in Russian by приходится, должен, вынужден.
He is an invalid and has to have a nurse.
This modal expression is used in the Present Indefinite tense only.
I’ve got to go.
Have you got to go right now?
37. This modal expression can be used in two tenses—the Present Indefinite and the Past Indefinite (was, were).
Dear Jim, I am to be shot at sunrise to-morrow.(Voynich)
1. An order which is generally the result of an arrangement made by one person for another, an arrangement which is not to be discussed. In this case only the Indefinite Infinitive is used.
You are to go straight to your room. You are to say nothing of
this to anyone. (De la Roche)
2. An arrangement or agreement, part of a plan.
I'm sorry, Major, we had an agreement– I was to do the
questioning here. (Heym)
3. Possibility.
Her father was often to be seen in the bar of the Hotel Metropole.
4. Something thought of as unavoidable; something that is destined to happen.
He was to be my teacher and friend for many years to come.
38. 1. Compulsion or strict order.
In this meaning it is always used with the second and third persons and has a strong stress.
«You shall not run away before you answer!» (Shaw)
Tonight you shall be entirely English: you shall read an English book.
2. Threat or warning.
In this meaning it is also used in the second and third person and with a weak stress.
"That's the last time!" she cried. "You shall never see me again" (Maugham)
3. Promise.
It is also used with the second and third persons and with a weak stress.
Don't be afraid, Jane, I saw it was an accident. You shall not be punished. (Ch. Bronte)
I shall make you happy, see if I don't. You shall do what you like, spend what you like. (Thackeray)
39. The verb can has two forms: can for the Present Tense and could for the Past Tense; the expression to be able to which has the same meaning can be used to supply the missing forms of the verb can.
Can expresses ability or capability, possibility, incredulity or doubt, astonishment and permission.
1. Physical or mental ability.
The little boy could not open the heavy door.
2. Possibility.
a) due to circumstances:
I could not go to the theatre yesterday because I was busy.
From where he sat he could see a cluster of apple trees
in blossom. (Galsworthy)
b) due to the existing laws:
The more she studied, the less sure she became, till idly turning the pages, she came to Scotland. People could be married there without any of this nonsense. (Galsworthy)
3. Incredulity, doubt, astonishment (they are closely connected).
«That is not true!» exclaimed Linton, rising in agitation. «It cannot be; it is incredible, it cannot be.» (Ch. Bronte)
4. Permission.
Except in formal writing can is more common than may to express permission:
Can I use your car?
You can go now.
Can is also used to express permission for the future:
You can borrow my car tomorrow.
40. The verb may has two forms: may for the Present Tense and might for the Past Tense. The expressions to be allowed and to be permitted, which have the same meaning, can be used to supply the missing forms of the verb may.
"May I come along?" asked Karen. (Heym)
Jolyon thought he might not have the chance of
saying it after. (Galsworthy)
1. Permission.
May I use your phone? (Heym)
2. Uncertainty as to the fulfillment of an action, state or occurrence, supposition implying doubt.
He may be busy getting ready for his trip
3. Possibility due to circumstance's.
May is used in this sense only in affirmative sentences. Can is also possible in this meaning.
You may/ can order a taxi by phone.
4. Reproach.
Only might is used in this meaning but not may.
You might lend me a razor. I was shaved this morning with a
sort of bill-hook. (Galsworthy)
41. Dare means to have the courage (or impertinence) to do something. In the negative it denotes the lack of courage to do something.
I dare not be alone at night. (Voynich)
Dare has two forms– dare for the Present and dared for the Past.
Did he dare to strike me when I was down? (E.Bronte)
She dared not look into the glass. (Dickens)
Sometimes dare takes the auxiliary but is followed by the bare infinitive.
You know you didn't dare give the order to charge the bridge until you saw us on the other side. (Shaw)
Dare is mostly used in interrogative and negative sentences.
42. Will is hardly ever a purely modal verb. It generally combines its modal meaning with the function of an auxiliary expressing futurity.
The modal verb will expresses volition, intention on the part of the speaker, or persistence.
1. Volition, intention.
«What is this? Who is this? Turn this man out. Clear the office!» cried Mr. Fang. «I will speak,» cried the man; «I will not be turned out...» (Dickens)
Very often will is used after the conjunction if in conditional clauses where it retains its modal meaning, that of volition.
You may laugh if you will but I was sure I should see her there.
The modal verb will is used in polite requests and inquiries.
Will you have a cup of tea?
Will you wait a moment, please?
2. Persistence referring to the present or to the future.
«Don't tell me.» «But I will tell you,» repeated Sikes. (Dickens)
Would was originally the past tense of will in the same way as should was the past tense of shall.
1. Volition. In this meaning it is mostly used in negative sentences.
She was going away and would not say where she was going.
2. Persistence.
I asked him not to bang the door, but he would do it.
3. Closely connected with the primary meaning of volition is the use of would to express habitual or recurrent actions; it is commonly used in literary descriptions, but not in speaking:
In the afternoon he would go out alone and walk for hours.
43. The modal verbs should and ought are treated together here as there is hardly any difference between them. Very often they are interchangeable.
Both should and ought express obligation, something which is advisable, proper or naturally expected.
1. Obligation, very often a moral obligation or duty.
In this meaning ought is more often used than should.
You ought to say a word or two about yourself.
2. Advisability
In this meaning should is more common than ought, as it always shows some personal interest whereas ought is more matter-of-fact.
You should be more careful. (London)
3. Something, which can be naturally expected.
The new sanatorium ought to be very comfortable.
The film should be very good as it is starring first-class actors.
44. см тетрадь.
45. The Subjunctive Mood shows that the action or state expressed by the verb is presented as a non-fact, as something imaginary or desired. It refers to what could or should happen in hypothetical situations. The Subjunctive Mood is also used to express an emotional attitude of the speaker to real facts. In Modern English the Subjunctive Mood has synthetic and analytical forms.
«I wish I were ten years older,» I said. (Braine)
1. The Present Subjunctive. In the Present Subjunctive the verb to be has the form be for all the persons singular and plural, which differs from the corresponding forms of the Indicative Mood (the Present Indefinite). The Present Subjunctive denotes an action referring to the present or future.
Here will I stand till Caesar pass along. (Shakespeare)
2. The Past Subjunctive. In the Past Subjunctive the verb to be has the form were for all the persons singular and plural, which in the singular differs from the corresponding form, of the Indicative Mood (the Past Indefinite).
If I was/ were better qualified, I would apply for the job.
However, were is preferable in purely imaginary statements:
If I were the Queen, you would be the King.
The analytical forms of the Subjunctive Mood consist of the mood auxiliaries should, would, may (might) and the infinitive of the notional verb.
Yates wished Bing would stop thanking him, but
Bing went on. (Heym)
In simple sentences the synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood are more frequent than the analytical forms. In simple sentences the Subjunctive Mood is used:
(1) to express wish:
Long live the forces of peace!
(2) to express an unreal wish:
If only he were free! (Galsworthy)
If only the storm were over!
(3) in oaths and imprecations:
Manners be hanged!
(4) in some expressions:
Suffice it to say that...
a) In sentences of unreal condition referring to the present or future the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be is used in the subordinate clause;
The world would be healthier if every chemist's shop in England were demolished. (Shaw)
b) In sentences of unreal condition referring to the past the Past Perfect of the Indicative Mood is used in the subordinate clause;
If I had got up earlier, I would have been on time.
If I had lived in the Stone Age, I would have been a hunter.
c) There are two mixed types of sentences of unreal condition. In the first of these the condition refers to the past and the consequence refers to the present or future.
If you had taken your medicine yesterday, you would be well now.
The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of purpose. When a clause of purpose is introduced by the conjunctions that, so that, in order that, we find the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary may (might) if the principal clause refers to the present or future;
Let the dog loose so that he may have a run.
She opens (will open) the window that she may (might) get a breath
of fresh air.
The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of concession. Adverbial clauses of concession are introduced by the conjunctions and connectives though, although, however, no matter, whatever, whoever, etc. The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary may (might) is generally used with reference to the present of future.
Though he may (might) be tired
Tired though he may (might) be. ÷
The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of time and place after the conjunctions whenever and wherever; in these cases the clauses have an additional concessive meaning.
Whenever you may (might) come, you are welcome.
The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of comparison (or manner) introduced by the conjunctions as if and as though (the latter is more literary).
She speaks (spoke) about him as if she knew him well.
The Subjunctive Mood is used in predicative clauses:
a) introduced by the conjunctions as if, as though, when we find the link verbs to be, to feel, to look, to seem, etc. in the principal clause.
I feel as if we were back seven years, Jon. (Galsworthy)
b) when the subject of the principal clause is expressed by an abstract noun such as wish, suggestion, aim, idea, etc. In this case the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should (for all persons) is used:
Mary's wish was that... our mother should come and live
with her. (E. Bronte)
The Subjunctive Mood is used in subject clauses introduced by the anticipatory it (it is necessary, it is important, it is right, it is requested, it is recommended, obligatory, desirable, etc.). The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should is used for all persons.
It was necessary that the child's history should be known to none.
46. The gerund developed from the verbal noun, which in course of time became verbalized preserving at the same time its nominal character.
The gerund has nominal and verbal properties. The nominal characteristics оf the gerund are as follows.
1. The gerund can perform the function of subject, object and predicative.
Crossing the river was a hard task. (subject)
She enjoyed sitting in the sun. (direct object)
Deciding is acting. (predicative)
2. The gerund can be preceded by a preposition.
The rain showed no sign of stopping.
I am relieved at being left alone.
3. Like a noun the gerund can be modified by a noun in the possessive case or by a possessive pronoun.
His getting divorced surprised everybody.
She insisted on his taking a cup of tea with the family.
The verbal characteristics of the gerund are the same as those of the participle:
1. The gerund of transitive verbs can take a direct object.
I had now made good progress in understanding and speaking their language. (Swift)
2. The gerund can be modified by an adverb.
He began snapping the pebbles carefully into the stream.
She burst out crying bitterly. (Hardy)
3. The gerund has tense distinctions; the gerund of transitive verbs has also voice distinctions. The forms of the gerund in Modern English are as follows:
Indefinite: doing (Active Voice), being done (Passive Voice)
Perfect: having done (Active), having been done (Passive)
1. The Indefinite Gerund Active and Passive denotes an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb; depending on the tense form of the finite verb it may refer to the present, past, or future.
I was tired of reading and dead sleepy.
2. The Perfect Gerund denotes an action prior to that of the finite verb. He didn’t remember ever having seen her in black.
The gerund of transitive verbs has special forms for the active and the passive voice.
He liked neither reading aloud nor being read aloud to. (Maugham)
It is to be observed that after the verbs to want, to need, to deserve, to require and the adjective worth the gerund is used in the active form, though it is passive in meaning.
The car needs repairing.
1. With the verbs and verbal phrases: to avoid, to burst out, to deny, to enjoy, to excuse, to fancy (in imperative sentences as an exclamation of surprise), to finish, to forgive, to give up, to go on, to keep (on), to leave off, to mind (in negative and interrogative sentences), to postpone, to put off, cannot help and some others.
He avoided looking at Savina. (Wilson).
2. With the following verbs and verbal phrases used with a preposition: to accuse of, to agree to, to approve of, to complain of, to depend on, to feel like, to insist on, to look like, to object to, to persist in, to prevent from, to rely on, to speak of, to succeed in, to suspect of, to thank for, to think of, to give up the idea of, to look forward to, not to like the idea of, to miss an (the) opportunity of and some others.
They accuse me of having dealt with the Germans. (Heym)
3. With the following predicative word-groups (with or without a preposition): to be aware of, to be busy with, to be capable of, to be fond of, to be guilty of, to be indignant at, to be pleased (displeased) at, to be proud of, to be sure of, to be surprised (astonished) at, to be worth (while), and some others.
He was aware of Becky’s having got married.
47. The Infinitive developed from the verbal noun, which in course of time became verbalized, retaining at the same time some of its nominal properties.
1. The nominal character of the Infinitive is manifested in its syntactic functions. The Infinitive can be used:
a) as the subject of a sentence.
To visit her was all that I desired.
b) as a predicative.
Your mistake was to send him that letter.
c) as an object.
They agreed to help us.
2. The verbal characteristics of the infinitive are as follows:
a) the Infinitive of transitive verbs can take a direct object.
I forgot to mail the letter.
b) the Infinitive can be modified by an adverb.
I cannot write so quickly.
Like the tense distinctions of all verbals those of the Infinitive are not absolute but relative.
1. The Indefinite Infinitive expresses an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb, so it may refer to the present, past or future.
I am glad to meet you. (Dreiser)
2. The Continuous Infinitive also denotes an action simultaneous with that expressed by the finite verb, but it is an action in progress.
It was pleasant to be driving the car again.
He pretended to be reading in his room.
3. The Perfect Infinitive denotes an action prior to the action expressed by the finite verb.
"I'm glad to have seen you," he said. (Dreiser)
4. The Perfect Continuous Infinitive denotes an action, which lasted a certain time before the action of the finite verb. It is not only a tense form, but also an aspect form.
For about ten days we seemed to have been living on nothing but cold meat, cake and bread and jam. (Jerome)
The Infinitive of transitive verbs has special forms for the Active and the Passive Voice:
I’m glad to hear you say so. (Active)
There is only one thing to be done. (Passive)
I cannot trifle or be trifled with.
In sentences with the construction there is the Infinitive of some verbs can be active or passive without any change in the meaning;
There's no time to lose. (Dreiser)
There is no time to be lost. (Eliot)
1. The Infinitive as a subject. The to- Infinitive is but seldom used in this function:
To send him that letter was a mistake.
To fulfil this condition was out of my power.
2. The Infinitive as a predicative.
He’s greatest wish was to tell her everything
3. The Infinitive as part of a compound verbal predicate.
a) after modal verbs, modal expressions, and verbs expressing modality the Infinitive forms part of a compound verbal modal predicate.
She must speak now or not at all. (Cronin)
b) With verbs denoting the beginning, duration, or end of an action the Infinitive forms part of a compound verbal aspect predicate.
Imprisonment began to tell upon him. (Dickens)
4. The Infinitive as an object is found after the verbs: to agree, to arrange, to ask (to request), to decide, to deserve, to expect, to fail, to forget, to hate, to help, to learn, to like, to manage etc.
The man agreed to serve as a witness.
5. The Infinitive as part of a complex object.
Old Jolyon saw his brother’s face change. (Galsworthy)
6. The Infinitive as an attribute in English modifies both abstract and class nouns, indefinite pronouns (somebody, something, anybody, anything etc.), ordinal numerals and the adjective last.
He was always the first to enter the dining- room and the last to
leave it. (Mansfield)
7. The Infinitive as an adverbial modifier.
a) The Infinitive can be an adverbial modifier of purpose.
I dressed and went out to buy the morning paper.
b) The Infinitive can be used as an adverbial modifier of result. This chiefly occurs after adjectives or adverbs modified by the adverbs enough and too.
It was dark enough to get lost.
c) The Infinitive can be an adverbial modifier of comparison (manner); in most cases with an additional meaning of purpose. In this function it is introduced by the conjunctions as if or as though.
She smiled mockingly and turned away, as though to go out.
d) The Infinitive can be used as an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances.
She was driven away, never to revisit this neighbourhood. (Ch. Bronte)
8. The Infinitive as parenthesis.
To tell the truth, I’m sick and tired of this nonsense.
48. The Participle is a non-finite form of the verb, which has a verbal and an adjectival or an adverbial character. There are two participles in English– Participle I and Participle II, traditionally called the Present Participle and the Past Participle.
Participle I is formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb; the following spelling rules should be observed:
a) If a verb ends in a mute e, the mute e is dropped before adding the suffix -ing:
to give — giving, to close — closing.
b) If a verb ends in a consonant preceded by a vowel rendering a short stressed sound, the final consonant is doubled before adding the suffix -ing:
to run—running, to forget—forgetting, to admit— admitting.
c) The verbs to die, to lie and to tie form Participle I in the following way: dying, lying, tying.
The verbal characteristics of the Participle are as follows:
1. Participle I of a transitive verb can take a direct object.
Opening the door, he went out on to the terrace. (Galsworthy)
2. Participle I and Participle II can be modified by an adverb.
Leaving the room hurriedly, he ran out. (Thackeray)
3. Participle I has tense distinctions; Participle I of transitive verbs has also voice distinctions. In Modern English Participle I has the following forms:
Active Passive
Indefinite reading being read
Perfect having read having been read
Like the tense distinctions of all the verbals, those of the participle are not absolute but relative.
. Participle I of transitive verbs has special forms to denote the Active and the Passive voice.
When reading a good book I do not like to be disturbed.
Being written in pencil the letter was difficult to make out.
Having written some letters he went to post them.
49. With a number of verbs and word-groups both the Gerund and the Infinitive may be used. The most important of them are: to be afraid, to begin, to cease, to continue, can (cannot) afford, cannot bear, to dread, to fear, to forget, to hate, to intend, to like (dislike), to neglect, to prefer, to propose, to remember, to recollect, to start, to stop.
The young man began turning over the pages of a book. (Priestley)
It is sometimes possible to find a reason for the use of a given form. The Gerund is of a more general, abstract character than the Infinitive.
The child was not afraid of remaining alone, but he was afraid to remain alone on such a stormy night.
With the verb to remember the Infinitive usually refers to the future, and the Gerund to the past.
I remember seeing the book in many bookshops.
With the verb to stop the Infinitive and the Gerund have different syntactical functions. The Gerund forms part of a compound verbal aspect predicate.
They stopped talking when he came in. (Galsworthy
The Infinitive has the function of an adverbial modifier of purpose.
She stopped to exchange a few words with a neighbour. (Dickens)
The gerund and the participle.
In most cases the differentiation between the Gerund and the Participle does not present any difficulty.
Unlike the Participle the Gerund may be preceded by a preposition, it may be modified by a noun in the possessive case or by a possessive pronoun; it can be used in the function of a subject, object, and predicative. In the function of an attribute and of an adverbial modifier both the Gerund and the Participle may be used, but the Gerund in these functions is always preceded by a preposition.
There are cases, when the differentiation between the Gerund and the Participle presents some difficulty; for instance, it is not always easy to distinguish between a gerund as part of a compound noun and a participle used as an attribute to a noun. One should bear in mind that if we have a gerund as part of a compound noun, the person or thing denoted by the noun does not perform the action expressed by the ing-form: e. g. a dancing-hall (a hall for dancing), a cooking-stove (a stove for cooking), walking shoes, a writing-table, etc.
If we have a participle used as an attribute the person denoted by the noun performs the action expressed by the ing-form: e. g. a dancing girl (a girl who dances), a singing child, etc.
50. The use of the Infinitive without the particle to (the bare
Infinitive).
1.After auxiliary verbs.
Will you come?
We shall go there at once.
I don’t know.
2. After modal verbs except the verb ought.
May I have a cigarette?
If one cannot have what one loves, one must love what one has.
3. After verbs denoting sense perception, such as to hear, to see, to feel, to watch, to notice, to observe, to perceive etc.
He heard a blackbird sing.
4. After the verb to let.
Don’t let these thoughts drive you crazy.
Let us be the best friends in the world! (Dickens)
5. After the verb to make in the meaning of 'заставлять' and the verb to have in the meaning of заставлять, допускать, велеть:
What makes you think so? (Carter)
6. After the verb to know when its meaning approaches that of to see, to observe (the verb to know never has this meaning in the Present Indefinite).
Have you ever known me tell a lie?
7. After the verb to bid.
I bowed and waited, thinking she would bid me take a seat. (E. Bronte)
8. After the expressions had better, would rather, would sooner, cannot but, nothing but, cannot choose but.
She does nothing but grumble.
9. In sentences of a special type (Infinitive sentences) beginning with why.
Why not come and talk to her yourself? (Reade)
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