Conjoint forms of possessive pronouns
St person 2nd person 3rd person
SINGULAR my his, her, its,
Your
PLURAL our their
Absolute forms of possessive pronouns
SINGULAR mine his, hers
Yours
PLURAL ours theirs
The conjoint form is used when the possessive pronoun comes before the noun it modifies. The conjoint form of the possessive pronoun is used as an attribute.
In his turn old Jolyon looked back at his son. (Galsworthy)
The absolute form is used when the possessive pronoun does not modify any noun.
3. Possessive pronouns are often used before the names of the parts of the body, clothing, things belonging to a person, etc. In that case they are not translated into Russian.
Young Jolyon rose and held out his hand to help his father up.
The girl dropped her handkerchief and he picked it up. (Galsworthy)
14. 1. Reflexive pronouns have the categories of person, number, and gender in the third person singular.
1st person 2nd person 3rd person
singular: myself yourself himself, herself,
itself
plural: ourselves yourselves themselves
2. Reflexive pronouns refer to the subject of the sentence in which they are used, indicating that the action performed by the doer passes back to him or is associated with him. In the sentence they are usually used as direct objects.
In that moment of emotion he betrayed the Forsyte in him—forgot himself, his interests, his property—was capable of almost anything... (Galsworthy) (object)
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Reflexive pronouns may be used as predicatives.
When she came back she was herself again. (Hardy) (predicative)
Reflexive pronouns preceded by a preposition may be used as indirect prepositional objects, as attributes and as adverbial modifiers.
If June did not like this, she could have an allowance and live by herself. (Galsworthy) (adverbial modifier of manner)
Reflexive pronouns may be used to form the reflexive voice (in this case reflexive pronouns are structural words):
Undressing again, she washed herself intensively... (Galsworthy)
And then I dressed myself and came away to find you. (Hardy)
Sometimes reflexive pronouns are used emphatically:
Moreover, Soames himself disliked the thought of that. (Galsworthy)
15. 1. Reciprocal pronouns are the group-pronouns each other and one another. They express mutual action or relation. The subject to which they refer must always be in the plural.
"I didn't really know him," he thought, "and he didn't know me; but we loved each other." (Galsworthy)
We haven't set eyes on one another for years. (Priestly)
Each other generally implies only two, one another two or more than two persons:
He had never heard his father or his mother speak in an angry voice, either to each other, himself, or anybody else. (Galsworthy)
2. Reciprocal pronouns have two case forms.
Girls banged into each other and stamped on each other's feet. ( Mansfield )
The common case of reciprocal pronouns is used as an object.
The men were not grave and dignified. They lost their tempers easily and called one another names... (London)
The genitive case of reciprocal pronouns may be used as an attribute.
Reciprocal pronouns preceded by a preposition are used as a prepositional indirect object:
They look at one another for a moment. (Dickens)
...in silence they stared at each other. (Saxton)
16. 1. Interrogative pronouns are used in inquiry, to form special questions. They are: w ho, whose, what, which.
The interrogative pronoun who has the category of case; the nominative case is who, the objective case whom.
Who refers to human beings?
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Slipping her hand under his arm, she said: "Who was that?" "He picked up my handkerchief. We talked about pictures." (Galsworthy)
2. In the sentence interrogative pronouns may have different functions—those of subject, predicative, object and attribute:
Who, do you think, has been to see you, Dad? She couldn't wait! Guess. (Galsworthy) (subject)
"No, who's he?" "Oh, he's a Polish Jew." (Aldington) (predicative)
"He says he's married," said Winifred. "Whom to, for goodness' sake?" (Galsworthy) (object)
" Who do you mean?" I said. (Du Maurier) (object)
"What sort of a quarrel?" he heard Fleur say. (Galsworthy) (ATTRIBUTE)
17. 1. The demonstrative pronouns are this, that, such, (the) same.
The demonstrative pronouns this and thathave two numbers this— these; that—those.
Thisis used to point at what is nearer in time or space; thatpoints at what is farther away in time or space.
He looked him over critically. "Yes, this boy might do," he thought. (Dreiser)
2. The demonstrative pronouns this and that are used as subjects, predicatives, objects and attributes.
It's all right, but I'd rather try my hand at brokerage, I think that appeals to me. (Dreiser) (subject)
The only honest people — if they existed — were those who said: "This is foul brutality..." (Aldington) (predicative)
Tell me just how you did this. (Dreiser) (object)
"If that young fellow wanted a place, I'd give it to him," he thought. (Dreiser) (attribute)
The demonstrative pronoun that (those) may be used as a word-substitute:
But in thinking of his remaining guest, an expression like that of a cat who is just going to purr stole over his (Swithin's) old face.. (Galsworthy)
The pronoun such is used as subject, predicative, object, and attribute:
If any living man can manage this horse I can: —I won't say any living man can do it— but if such has the power, I am here. (Hardy) (subject)
Her idolatry of this man was such that she herself almost feared it to be ill omened. (Hardy) (predicative)
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But such thoughts and visions did not prevent him from following Professor Caldwell closely. (London) (attribute)
18. 1. Conjunctive pronouns (who, what, whose, which) not only point back to some person or thing mentioned before but also have conjunctive power, introducing subordinate clauses (subject clauses, object clauses, predicative clauses).
What June had taken for personal interest was only the impersonal excitement of every Forsyte... (Galsworthy) (subject clause)
What you want, in fact, is a first-rate man for a fourth-rate fee, and that's exactly what you've got! (Galsworthy) (predicative clause)
I don't want to hear what you've come for. (Galsworthy) (object clause)
2. In the clause they introduce they perform different functions, those of subject, predicative, attribute and object.
What had made her yield he could never make out; and from Mrs. Heron, a woman of some diplomatic talent, he learnt nothing. (Galsworthy) (subject)
Erik realized with a sinking sensation that Haviland didn't know who he was. ( Wilson ) (predicative)
I've spent a lot of time in the chart-room now, and I'm on the edge of knowing my way about, what charts I want to refer to, what coasts I want to explore. (London) (attribute)
What Savina could no longer do for him, he did himself, and brutally brushed aside all other interests except her. ( Wilson ) (object)
19. Relative pronouns (who, whose, which, that, as) not only point back to a noun or a pronoun mentioned before but also have conjunctive power. They introduce attributive clauses. The word they refer to is called their antecedent. It may be a noun or a pronoun.
Whois used in reference to human beings or animals.
Which is used in reference to things and animals.
Here was her own style—a bed, which did not look like one and many mirrors. (Galsworthy).
That is mainly used in reference to animals and things. It may also be used in reference to human beings.
This... gave him much the same feeling a man has when a dog that he owns wriggles and looks at him. (Galsworthy)
As usually introduces attributive clauses when the demonstrative pronoun such is used in the principal clause (it is a rare case when as is used without such in the principal clause).
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A s may refer to living beings and things.
...perhaps the books were right and there were many such as she (Ruth) in the upper walks of life. (London)
2. Relative pronouns can also refer to a clause. Relative pronouns always perform some syntactical function in the clause they introduce.
Gemma, there's a man downstairs who wants to see you. ( Voynich )(subject).
I think I have taken nothing that you or your people have given me. (Galsworthy) (object)
Families often think it due to themselves to turn their back on newcomers, whom they may not think quite enough for them. (Shaw) (object)
20. The defining pronouns are: all, each, every, everybody, everyone, everything, either, both, other, another.
1. All is a generalizing pronoun; it takes a group of things or persons as a whole. All may be used as subject, predicative, object, and attribute.
... when all is said and done... (London) (subject)
He just loved me, that is all. (London) (predicative)
And Martin forgot all about it. (London) (object)
... if all the doors are closed... (London) (attribute)
2. Both points out two persons, things or notions mentioned before.
“But there is more to be said,” he continued, after a pause painful to both. (London)
You can study French, or you can study German, or cut them both out and study Esperanto... (London)
The pronoun both may be used as subject, object and attribute.
Both seemed to implore something to shelter them from reality. (Hardy) (subject)
The light, admitted by windows at both ends, was unfortunately not Chinese. (Galsworthy) (attribute)
3. Each, every, everybody, everyone, everything.
Each and every refer to all the members of the group of persons, things, or notions mentioned before and taken one by one. When used as subject, eachetc. require a verb in the singular.
Eachmay be used as subject, object, and attribute.
The train coming in a minute later, the two brothers parted and entered their respective compartments. Each felt aggrieved that the other had not modified his habits to secure his society a little longer. (Galsworthy) (subject)
He paid a dollar each. (London) (object)
Every is used only as an attribute:
This is something more than genius. It is true, every line of it. (London)
Everybody, everyone refer to all the members of the group of persons mentioned before or taken one by one.
The pronouns everybody, everyone have two cases: the common case and the genitive case.
The common case may be used as subject and object.
You walked into the waiting room, into a great buzz of conversation, and there was everybody; you knew almost everybody. (Mansfield) (subject, object)
4. Either has two meanings:
(a) each of the two;
(b) one or the other.
The trail wasn't three feet wide on the crest, and on either side the ridge fell away in precipices hundreds, of feet deep. ( London )
Then he remembered the underwriters and the owners, the two masters a captain must serve, either of which could and would break him and whose interests were diametrically opposed. (London)
5. Other, another.
Other denotes some object different from the one mentioned before.
Other has two numbers: singular—other, plural—others. It has two cases: the common case and the genitive case (other's, others').
Another has two meanings:
(1) “a different one”,
(2) “an additional one”.
He has learnt sheep farming at another place, and he's now mastering dairy work. (Hardy)
Yes, thought Soames, another year of London and that sort of life, and she'll be spoiled. (Galsworthy)
Another may be used as subject, object, and attribute.
The lantern hanging at her wagon had gone out but another was shining in her face much brighter than her own had been. (Hardy) (subject)
Often among the women he met, he would see now one, now another, looking at him, appraising him, selecting him. (London) (OBJECT)
Now I won't say another word. I am overwhelmed, crushed. (London) (ATTRIBUTE)
21. Indefinite pronouns point out some person or thing indefinitely. The indefinite pronouns are some, any, somebody, anybody, someone, anyone, something, anything, and one.
The pronouns somebody, anybody, someone, anyone, one have two cases: the common case and the genitive case.
1. Some is chiefly used in affirmative sentences while any is used in negative and interrogative sentences and in conditional clauses.
We spread down some wide blankets. (0. Henry)
Some, not any, is used in special and general questions expressing some request or proposal.
"Do you want some water?" "No, I don't want any water." ( Maltz )
Some may have the meaning of “certain” (некоторые) before a noun in the plural.
You have some queer customers. Do you like this life? (Galsworthy)
Somebody, someone, something are chiefly used in affirmative sentences.
He wanted someone young; you know a dark Spanish type... (Mansfield)
I want to say something. (Galsworthy)
Anybody, anyone, anything are used in negative and interrogative sentences and in conditional clauses.
I don't want anything. (Voynich)
Somebody, someone, something are used in special and general questions if they express some request or proposal.
Will someone help me?
Anyone, anybody, anything may be used in affirmative sentences. Anyone, anybody are used with the meaning of “everyone” (любой); anything is used with the meaning of “everything'”(что угодно).
"You've no business to say such a thing!" she exclaimed. "Why not? Anybody can see it." (Galsworthy)
2. The indefinite pronouns some and any may be used as subject, object and attribute.
Some say the world will end in fire,
Some say in ice (Frost) (subject)
When preceded by a preposition the pronouns somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything may be used as prepositional indirect objects.
The girl doesn't belong to anybody — is no use to anybody but me. (Shaw)
Such a purse had never been carried by anyone attentive to her. (Dreiser)
3. The indefinite-personal pronoun one is often used in the sense of any person or every person.
New York presents so many temptations for one to run into extravagance (O. Henry)
The indefinite pronoun one is often used in a general sense.
...Only one with constitution of iron could have held himself down, as Martin did. (London)
The pronoun one may be used in the genitive case:
I know exactly what it feels like to be held down on one's back. (Galsworthy)
22. Most of the indefinite pronouns correspond to negative pronouns: some — no, none; something — nothing, none; somebody, someone—nobody, no one, none.
Some defining pronouns also correspond to negative pronouns: everything—nothing; all, everybody, every, each—no, none, nobody; both, either—neither.
1. The negative pronoun nois used only before a noun as its attribute.
No dreams were possible in Du fton , where the snow seemed to turn black almost before it hit the ground. (Braine)
None ofus—none of us can hold on forever! (Galsworthy)
... he took the letters from the gilt wire cage into which they had been thrust through the slit in the door. None from Irene. (Galsworthy)
It can be used as subject or object.
2. The negative pronouns nobody, no one refer to human beings. They correspond to the indefinite pronouns somebody, someone and to the defining pronouns all, every, each, everybody.
The negative pronoun nobody may be used in the genitive case: nobody's.
The negative pronouns nobody and no one are mostly used as subjects and objects.
Nobody seemed, to know him well. (Galsworthy) (subject)
He remembered the days of his desperate starvation when no one invited him to dinner. (London) (subject)
I told you once that I have no one in the world but you. ( Voynich ) (object)
3. The negative pronoun nothing refers to things. It is opposite to the indefinite pronoun something and to the defining pronoun e verything.
And nothing of vital importance had happened after that till the year turned. (Galsworthy)
Nothing may be used as subject, predicative or object.
There is nothing to worry about. (Galsworthy) (subject)
The negative pronoun neitheris opposite to the defining pronouns either, both.
Neither of them answered; but their faces seemed to him as if contemptuous. (Galsworthy)
In the sentence it may be used as subject, object and attribute.
Neither was wise enough to be sure of the working of the mind of the other. (Dreiser) (subject)
The negative pronouns nobody, no one, nothing are singular in meaning and when they are used as the subject of the sentence they require a verb in the singular (see the above examples).
23. The adjective is a part of speech expressing a quality of a substance.
The adjective has the following morphological characteristics:
Most adjectives have degrees of comparison: the comparative degree and t he superlative degree.
The comparative degree denotes a higher degree of a quality.
She is taller than her sister.
My box is smaller than hers.
The superlative degree denotes the highest degree of a quality.
She is the tallest of the three sisters.
Her box is the smallest of all our boxes.
Adjectives form their degrees of comparison in the following way:
(a) By the inflexion - er , -est. (synthetical way);
(b) By placing more and most before the adjective (analytical way),
Monosyllabic adjectives usually form their comparatives and superlatives in the first way, and polysyllabic adjectives in the second way.
Adjectives of two syllables that end in -y, - ow , - er , -le form the degrees of comparison synthetically.
happy happier (the) happiest
narrow narrower (the) narrowest
clever cleverer (the) cleverest
simple simpler (the) simplest
Adjectives of two syllables, which have the stress on the last syllable, can form the degrees both in two ways:
complete completer (the) completest
more complete (the) most complete
Some adjectives have irregular forms of degrees of comparison, e.g.:
good better (the) best
bad worse (the) worst
many, much more (the) most
little less (the) least
far farther (the) farthest
further (the) furthest
old older (the) oldest
elder (the) eldest
The adjective has the following syntactical characteristics:
In a sentence the adjective may be used as an attribute or as a predicative.
A little fat chap thrust out his underlip and the tall fellow frowned. (Mansfield) (attributes)
Laura was terribly nervous. (Mansfield) (predicative)
The air was motionless… (Mansfield) (predicative)
The Classification of adjectives.
According to their meaning and grammatical characteristics adjectives fall under two classes: (1) qualitative adjectives, (2) relative adjectives.
1. Qualitative adjectives denote qualities of a substance directly, not through its relation to another substance, as size, shape, colour, physical and mental qualities, qualities of general estimation:
little, large, high, soft, hard, warm, white, blue, pink, strong, bold, beautiful, important, necessary, etc.
2. Relative adjectives denote qualities of a substance through their relation to materials (silken, woollen, wooden), to place (Italian, Asian), to time (monthly, weekly), to some action (preparatory, rotatory).
24. 1. Most qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison:
big bigger (the) biggest
interesting more interesting (the) most interesting
Some qualitative adjectives suchas greenish, darkish, incurable, unsuitable, chief, principal, have no degrees of comparison.
2. They have certain typical suffixes, such as - ful , -less, -ous, -ent, -able, -y, -ish: careful, careless, dangerous, convenient, comfortable, silvery, watery, whitish, shortish.
3. From most of them adverbs can be formed by the suffix - ly :
graceful—gracefully
gay—gaily
4. Most qualitative adjectives can be used as attributes and predicatives.
How lovely the little river is, with its dark, changing wavelets! (Eliot) (attributes)
The young man was introduced, and they sat down at the table. (Aldington) (attribute)
But you're nearly as old as I am! (Aldington) (predicative)
Substantivized adjectives have acquired some or all of the characteristics of the noun, but their adjectival origin is still generally felt.
Substantivized adjectives are divided into wholly substantivized and partially substantivized adjectives.
Wholly substantivized adjectives have all the characteristics of nouns, namely the plural form, the genitive case; they are associated with articles,
i. e. they have become nouns: a native, the natives, a native's hut.
Partially substantivized adjectives acquire only some of the characteristics of the noun; they are used with the definite article. Partially substantivized adjectives denote a whole class: the rich, the poor, the unemployed etc. They may also denote abstract notions: the good, the evil, the beautiful, the singular, the plural etc.
Substantivized adjectives denoting nationalities fall under wholly and partially substantivized adjectives.
Wholly substantivized adjectives are: a Russian—Russians, a German — Germans.
Partially substantivized adjectives are: the English, the French, the Chinese etc.
25. The adverb is a part of speech, which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points out some characteristic features of an action or a quality.
The function of the adverb is that of an adverbial modifier. An adverb may modify verbs (verbals), words of the category of state, adjectives and adverbs.
Annette turned her neck lazily, touched one eyelash and said: "He amuses Winifred." (Galsworthy)
As to their structure adverbs are divided into:
(1) Simple adverbs (long, enough, then, there etc.);
(2) Derivative adverbs (slowly, likewise) forward, headlong etc.); (The most productive adverb-forming suffix is -ly. There are also some other suffixes: -wards, -ward, -long, -wise.)
(3) Compound adverbs (anyhow, sometimes, nowhere etc.);
(4) Composite adverbs (at once, at last etc.).
Some adverbs have degrees of comparison.
(a) If the adverb is a word of one syllable, the comparative degree is formed by adding - er and the superlative by adding -est.
fast — faster — fastest
hard — harder — hardest
(b) Adverbs ending in - ly form the comparative by means of more and the superlative by means of most.
wisely — more wisely — most wisely
beautifully—more beautifully—most beautifully
(c) Some adverbs have irregular forms of comparison:
well —better—best
badly — worse —- worst
much — more — most
little — less — least
According to their meaning adverbs fall under several groups:
(1) Adverbs of time (today, to-morrow, soon etc.);
(2) Adverbs of repetition or frequency (often, seldom, ever, never, sometimes etc.);
(3) Adverbs of place and direction (inside, outside, here, there, backward, upstairs etc.);
(4) Adverbs of cause and consequence (therefore, consequently, accordingly etc.);
(5) Adverbs of manner (kindly, quickly, hard etc.);
(6) Adverbs of degree, measure and quantity (very, enough, half, too, nearly, almost, much, little, hardly, rather, exceedingly, quite, once, twice, firstly, secondly etc.).
Three groups of adverbs stand aside: interrogative, relative and conjunctive adverbs.
Interrogative adverbs (where, when, why, how) are used in special questions.
Conjunctive and relative adverbs are used to introduce subordinate clauses.
1. Adverbs of time – yesterday, then, yet, now, today, tomorrow, etc. – are placed at the end of the sentence or at the very beginning of it.
I went to the theatre yesterday. Yesterday I went to the theatre.
2. Adverbs of repetition and frequency – often, never, seldom, sometimes, usually, still etc. - precede the principal verb.
They never do this. He often goes there.
3. Adverbs of manner – kindly, badly, well, etc. and of place – here, there etc. – are usually placed after the direct object or after the verb.
Mr. Black’s wife plays the piano well.
4. If an adverb of time and an adverb of place are used together the latter precedes the former.
I’ll go there tomorrow.
5. Adverbs of degree (almost, nearly, quite, just, too, very etc.) are generally placed before adjectives or other adverbs.
I find him very clever. We know him quite well.
26. Verb is a part of speech, which denotes an action (run, play) or a state (love, seem). The verb has the following grammatical categories: person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood.
According to their morphological structure verbs are divided into:
a) simple (read, live, hide, speak),
b) derived, i. e. having affixes (magnify, fertilize, captivate, undo, decompose),
c) compound, i. e. consisting of two stems (daydream, browbeat),
d) composite, consisting of a verb and a postposition of adverbial origin (sit down, go away, give up).
The basic forms of the verb in Modern English are; the Infinitive, the Past Indefinite and Participle II: to speak—-spoke— spoken.
According to the way in which the Past Indefinite and Participle II are formed, verbs are divided into three groups: regular verbs, irregular verbs, and mixed verbs.
1. Regular verbs. They form the Past Indefinite and Participle II by adding -ed to the stem of the verb, or only -d if the stem of the verb ends in
-e.
to want—wanted
to unite—united
to open—opened
Irregular verbs. Here belong the following groups of verbs:
a) verbs which change their root vowel:
to sing — sang — sung
to meet — met — met
to win — won — won
b) verbs which change their root vowel and add -en for Participle II:
to speak — spoke — spoken
to write —wrote—written
to take —took —taken
c) verbs which change their root vowel and add -d or -t :
to sell —sold —sold
to bring — brought — brought
d) verbs which change their final -d into -t :
to send —sent —sent
to build — built — built
Mixed verbs. Their Past Indefinite is of the regular type, and their Participle II is of the irregular type:
to show — showed — shown
to sow —sowed —sown
According to the syntactic function of verbs, which depends on the extent to which they retain, weaken or lose their meaning, they are divided into notional verbs, auxiliary verbs and link verbs.
1. A notional verb is a verb which has an independent meaning and function in the sentence. It is used as a simple verbal predicate and expresses an action or a state of the person or thing denoted by the subject. Here belong such verbs as to write, to read, to speak, to know, to ask.
Ricky surrounded her with great care and luxury. (Stern)
Auxiliary verbs are those which have lost their meaning and are used only as form words, thus having only a grammatical function. They are used in analytical forms. Here belong such verbs as to do, to have, to be, shall, will, should, would, may.
Have you spoken to him?
Link verbs are verbs which to a smaller or greater extent have lost their meaning and are used in the compound nominal predicate: to be, to turn, to get, to grow, to remain etc.
The house was too big. (Galsworthy)
Transitive verbs take a direct object, i.e. they express an action that passes on to a person or thing directly. A direct object answers the questions What? or Whom? Only action verbs can be transitive. Here belong such verbs as to take, to give, to send, to make, to see, to show, to bring, to love, etc.
1. A terminative verb expresses an action, which has a final aim in view, a certain limit beyond which the action cannot be continued. Here belong simple and composite verbs, such as to come, to bring, to build, to give, to take, to receive, to find, to fall, to kill, to die, to become, to stand up, to sit down, to come to.
2. Non-terminative verbs denote a certain action, which does not imply any limit. Here belong such verbs as to live, to exist, to sleep, to love, to be, to have, to possess, to work, to speak, to respect, to hope, to sit, etc.
27. The use of the Present Indefinite.
The Present Indefinite is used to denote:
1. Customary, repeated actions. This is its most characteristic use.
I usually go away at weekends.
The repeated character of the action is often shown by adverbials such as every day, often, usually, etc.
2. Permanent actions or states (continuing for a long time), characterizing the subject.
She sings and plays the piano beautifully.
He is so lazy. He doesn’t do anything to help me.
Universal truths, something that is eternally true.
Magnet attracts iron.
The earth rotates round its axis.
4. Actions going on at the present moment:
a) with verbs not used in the Continuous form.
I see George in the street. Tell him to come in.
A future action:
a) In adverbial clauses of time and condition after the conjunctions when, till, until, before, after, as soon as, as long as, if, unless, on condition that, provided.
Robert, will you mend me a pen or two before you go? (Ch.Bronte)
with verbs of motion, such as to go, to come, to leave and aspect verbs such as to begin, to finish etc. to speak about fixed future events (timetables, calendar):
The train leaves at 10 tomorrow.
28. The use of the Future Indefinite.
The Future Indefinite is used to denote a future action.
I am tired. I shall go and have a nap before dinner.
It will be much cooler up at Fiesole. (Voynich)
Note. – To denote a future action the word combinations to be going + Infinitive, to be about+ Infinitive and to be on the point of + Gerund are often used.
To be going to, to be about to, to be on the point of denote an action, which is, expected to take place in the nearest future. To be going to is colloquial, to be on the point of is literary.
This is going to be a cheerful evening. (Shaw)
The Future Indefinite is used:
a) To predict the future or to say what we think will happen:
Tomorrow will be another cold day.
) Will is used to express decision made at the moment of speaking:
«I’m going shopping.»– «Oh, are you? I’ll come with you, then.»
c ) Will also used to make statements of fact about the future:
I’ll be forty next month.
In general the Future Indefinite Tense is seldom used in Modern English. The tendency is to denote a future action either by means of the Present Continuous Tense or, which is most common, by means of the Future Continuous Tense, or by means of the word combination to be going to + Infinitive.
29. The Continuous form denotes an action in progress at the present moment or at a given moment in the past of future. It is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the required tense and Participle I of the notional verb.
The Present Continuous is used:
1. To express an action going on at the present moment.
You can switch off the TV. I’m not watching it.
2. To denote a certain state or quality peculiar to the person at the moment of speaking.
You are being a nuisance.
3. To talk about planned future arrangements.
We are leaving at ten o’clock on Friday.
4. To express a continual process.
The Earth is always moving.
The Sun is ever shining.
5. To express an action thought of as a continual process (with the adverbs always, ever, constantly). The action is represented as going on without any interval.
She is always grumbling.
The Past Continuous is used:
1. To talk about an action that was in progress at a definite moment in the past.
«What were you doing at six o’clock last night?»
2. To talk about actions that were in progress when something else happened.
When I was leaving, the phone rang.
3. To denote a certain state or quality peculiar to the person at a given moment in the past.
He knew he was being restrained.
4. To denote an action thought of as a continual process (with the adverbs always, ever, constantly).
She was constantly complaining of being lonely.
5. Both the Past Continuous and the Past Indefinite can be used after such phrases as the whole day, all day long.
They were working in the garden all day long.
The use of the Future Continuous.
1. The Future Continuous is used to denote an action which will be going on at a definite moment in the future.
I’ll be having dinner at seven o’clock.
2. We use the Future Continuous for planned actions. In this meaning will be doing is similar to am doing.
I’ll be going to the city center later.
3. The Future Continuous is often used in Modern English in the same meaning as the Future Indefinite.
But my dear Ann, you will be getting into debt. (Wells)
30. The Perfect form denotes an action completed before the present moment (and connected with it) or before a definite moment in the past or future.
It is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the required tense and Participle II of the notional verb.
The Present Perfect has three main uses.
1. It expresses an action that happened at some time in one’s life. The action is in the past and finished, but the effects of the action are still felt.
I’ve been to the States. (I still remember)
2. It expresses a past action that has a present result. The action is usually in the recent past.
I’ve lost my wallet. (I haven’t got it now)
The taxi hasn’t arrived (We are still waiting for it)
2. The Present Perfect denotes an action which began in the past, has been going on up to the present and is still going on.
Mr. Cowperwood, I have known you now for something like fourteen years. (Dreiser)
We have been engaged these four years. (Austen)
The use of the Past Perfect.
1. The Past Perfect denotes an action completed before a certain moment in the past.
After she had cried out, she felt easier. (Heym)
2. Sometimes the Past Perfect does not denote priority but only the completion of the action.
He waited until she had found the latchkey and opened the door.
3. The Past Perfect is used to denote an action, which began before a definite moment in the past, continued up to that moment and was still going on at that moment.
a) with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form.
Examination convinced him that the deacon was dead — had been dead for some time. (Eliot)
b) in negative sentences. (In this case the Past Perfect Continuous is also possible, but not common.)
Those two had not spoken to each other for three days and were in a state of rage. (Bennett)
c) with non-terminative verbs such as to work, to live, to study, to teach, to travel, to last, etc. (In this case the Past Perfect Continuous is possible.)
The ride had lasted about ten minutes, when the truck suddenly swerved to a halt. (Heym)
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