Advantages and disadvantages of the approaches.
Arguments IN FAVOUR of 1 conception:
1) phonetic changes are not separated from morphology thus the unity between form and ‘content is preserved. And the phonetic aspect is not isolated from the lexis and grammar ones.
2) it’s quite convincing that the allophones of the same phoneme can show considerable difference.
Arguments AGAINST it:
1) sometimes it’s impossible to find a strong position: корова, decorate.
2) sometimes the difference between the allophones of the same phoneme is too strong: ухо – уши, водит – вожу.
Argument FOR the second conception:
1) it’s simplicity
its WEAK points:
1) it views phonology in isolation from morphology. The unity between content and form is destroyed.
2) it’s difficult to establish the limit within which the allophone of the same phoneme may vary: (phonological function) мел (dark) – мель (clear) different phonemes, little [l] => [dark l] the same phoneme.
Moscow school is more effective in terms of teaching, because it gives an instrument for writing.
Trubetskoy – the conception of archiphonemes (text book).
Suprasegmental Phonetics
Intonation
Human communication isn’t possible without intonation, because it’s instrumental in conveying the meaning. No sentence can exist without a particular intonation.
Intonation (in linguistic terms) in Russian linguistics is viewed as a complex structure, a whole formed by significant variations in pitch ( высота тона ), loudness and tempo.
Some linguists also include voice quality or timbre.
At the moment we’ll leave an open question and limit our analysis to the pitch, loudness and tempo.
American, British scholars identify pitch or melody as intonation, because pitch has a very important linguistic meaning.
There’s another term widely used in phonetics. It’s Prosody. Generally, in research the term intonation is applied to the analysis at phases while prosody covers a broader field from a syllable to a text.
We’ll use them as synonyms.
The acoustic correlate of pitch is fundamental frequency. Loudness is intensity. Tempo – rate and pausation (time or duration).
Prosodic analysis is an undertaking.
Intonation is a language universal. It means that no language can exist without it.
Intonation Pattern is the basic unit of intonation.
The nucleus, the head, the pre-head, the tail.
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The nucleus has the most significant change in pitch.
The function of Intonation Pattern is to actualize syntagms into intonation groups. (The syntagm is a group of words, semantically and syntactically complete)
I hope | you understand everything ||
An actualized syntagm is called an intonation group.
Functions of Intonation
scheme 2
Intonation is a powerful means of communication. It has a great potential for expressing ideas and emotions and it contributes to mutual understanding between people.
The main function of intonation is the communicative function.
This function includes 2 uses of intonation:
1) its ability to discriminate the meaning (distinctive function)
2) its ability to structure the text (organizing function)
Distinctive (Phonological) function
to prove that intonation is capable of differentiating the meaning we must make opposition of 2 phrases of identical syntactic structure and lexical composition, in which the difference in meaning is marked by intonation only.
What kinds of meaning can be differentiated:
1) the syntactic (communicative) types of sentences:
Isn’t it wonderful? (=a question)
Isn’t it wonderful! (=an interjection)
Will you stop talking (=a command)
Will you stop talking (=a request)
Only the change of nuclear tone can change the communicative type of a sentence.
It’s a lovely day. (=a statement)
It’s a lovely day (=an interjection)
It’s a lovely day? (=a question)
2) intonation is capable of distinguishing attitudinal meanings:
She’s passed the exam. (=reserved, uninterested)
She’s passed the exam. (lively interested)
She’s passed the exam. (impressed)
In this case not only the nuclear tone can differentiate the meaning, but the head also, as well as the pre-head. They all convey attitudinal meaning.
The fool. (=a fact)
The fool. (=very emotionally)
3) intonation can differentiate the meaning of the whole phrase (the actual meaning):
- Have you read this book?
- not once. (= ни разу)
- not once. (= ни один раз, много раз)
I don’t want you to read anything. (= because of your eyes)
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I don’t want you to read anything. (= всякую ерунду)
The change of meaning can also be the result of the shift of centre stress (different placement of nuclear tone).
I have plans to leave (= у меня есть планы уехать)
I have plans to leave (= у меня есть документы, которые нужно оставить)
Phrasing can have (put) subdivision into intonation groups:
This I my teacher, Dc. Smith. (= познакомьтесь)
This is my teacher Dc. Smith. (=его зовут доктор Смит).
But still mainly it’s the nuclear tone which can differentiate the meaning of the phrase. This function is sometimes called semantic.
By organizing function we mean the following:
1) the role of intonation in the process of integration and delimitation
2) -||- in structuring the information content of the text
All these processes take place simultaneously.
By delimitation we mean that intonation can divide the text into smaller units:
- phonopasseges;
- phrases;
- intonation groups.
Integration consists in organizing smaller units into bigger ones:
intonation groups -> into phrases -> into phonopasseges -> text.
The role of intonation in conveying the information ‘content of the text.
Intonation can highlight the most important information, on the other hand it shows which information is known to the listener.
Peter went(given information, the theme) to Paris (= new information, the rhyme)
In most cases (80%) in English the last notional word has the nuclear tone. We call this position unmarked (=обычная), sometimes – end-focus.
Did Peter go to Paris?
No, Mark went to Paris. (it’s marked position of the tone).
Any part of speech can carry new information and take the focus position.
The book is not on the table, it’s in the table.
Intonation is also instrumental in conveying shades of meaning. It may be in balance with syntactic structure and lexical composition of an utterance, but it may also neutralize or even contradict them
Isn’t it ridiculous? (a question pronounced as a statement).
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How very nice. (=negative).
This ability of intonation is often used to convey irony.
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