The process of generalization.
The native speaker doesn’t pay attention to the allophones which don’t change the meaning. But every native speaker has a generalized idea of a complex of distinctive features that can’t be changed without changing the meaning.
scheme 1
The features which can’t be changed without a change of meaning are called relevant (or distinctive)
The invariant of a phoneme – a native speaker’s generalized variants. The invariant of a phoneme is a bundle of its distinctive features.
The functional aspect
.. to dinstinguish the meanings. Phonemes are capable of distinguishing the meaning of words and morphemes: seemed [d] ó seems [z]
and changing the meanings of whole sentences:
Ex: He was heard badly. – He was hurt badly.
There is no room for you in my hut. – There is no room for you in my heart.
This function is performed when the phoneme is opposed to another phoneme in the same phonetic context: [ka:t] – [pa:t]
backlingual bilabial (relevant features)
The features that do not effect the meaning are called irrelevant features (non-distinctive). Ex: aspiration.
Distinctive features for English consonants:
1) place of articulation;
2) manner of articulation;
3) absence/ presence of voice
Distinctive features for English vowels:
1) the vowel quality: [sit] – [si:t]
monothong dipthongoid
(front-retractive) (front)
Phonetic and Phonological Mistakes:
If an allophone of some phoneme is replaced by an allophone of a different phoneme – the mistake is phonological.
If an allophone of some phoneme is replaced by another allophone of the same phoneme – the mistake is called phonetic.
The phoneme is a unity of 3 aspects: material, abstract and function.
Transcription and phonetic notations.
Transcription is a set of symbols which represents sounds in written form.
There is an organization called IPA (International Phonetic Assosiation), and it worked out the system of symbols universal internationally: International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
There are 2 types of transcription: broad and narrow.
The broad variant is (called) phonemic and provides symbols for the phonemes. It’s used in teaching.
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The narrow variant is (called) allophonic and provides symbols for the allophones, mainly used in phonetic research: [ph] – aspiration, seemed – [do] partly devoiced.
There are 2 types of broad transcription: by D.Jones and by Vasiliev.
By D.Jones: uses the same symbols for short and long vowels (he focused on the length, but it’s a non-distinctive feature).
By Vasiliev: uses special symbols for all vowel phonemes.
Phoneme Theory. Part II
Main trends in the phoneme theory. The history of investigation.
The phoneme is one of the basic language units. However, by different linguistic schools it’s very differently described.
The history of phonological studies.
The idea of distinguishing between the functional approach to the study of speech sounds and their material substance was first expressed by the Russian linguist Ivan Alexandrovich Бодуэн-де-Куртене (he is the founder).
in the 20-30s of the 20th century a number of phonological conceptions appeared in different countries.
Nickolai Trubetskoy (Prague Linguistic Circle)
Roman Jakobson ( -||- )
The theory of these two linguists formed the classical phonology (in Europe).
in the USA at the same time the familiar theories appeared.
There were 2 famous schools in Russia: Leningrad School (Scherba, his follower Зиндер, Бондаренко - woman) and Moscow School (Avanesov, Кузнецов, Реформатский).
Among American linguists: E. Sapir – classical phonology.
All these theories are classical, traditional, static (description, classificatory character).
In the 60s of the 20th century New Phonology appeared. It was aimed to explain how speech was actually produced and understood.
This New Phonology is known as generative phonology.
N. Chomsky (an American linguist)
They tried to create dynamic models, which were aimed at establishing the sound pattern of a sentence on the basis of its semantic and grammar characteristics.
The main criterion is the approach of different linguistics to the 3 aspects of the phoneme. Some linguists exaggerated the material aspect, some – the abstract one and etc.
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Groups of Conceptions
1) includes the conception that pay special attention to the abstract aspect. This vie is called mentalistic or psychological. According to it, the phoneme is the ideal mental image, it doesn’t exist objectively, it exists only in the mind of the speaker. Actual speech sounds are an imperfect realization of the phoneme. These ideas were expressed by Бодуэн-де-Куртене and later developed by Sapir and others.
2) functional group conception. Because special attention is given to the ability of the phoneme to differentiate the meaning. Scholars are particularly interested in distinctive features, while non-distinctive features are often ignored.
Trubetskoy, Jakobson and Bloomfield.
The greatest achievement of these scholars was that their theory gave rise to phonology as a linguistic discipline. However it resulted in the separation of phonetics and phonology. They claimed that only phonology was a linguistic discipline, while phonetics should belong to biology. The material aspect was ignored by this theory.
3) the material aspect is exaggerated. This approach is called physical and is represented by D. Johnes and an American scholar B. Bloch. And they regarded the phoneme as the family of sounds, i.e. the phoneme is a mechanical sum of its allophones. So, similarity between sounds is considered to be the main criterion for attributing them to a particular phoneme. They ignored abstract and functional aspects.
It also demonstrates, that Scherba’s definition is comprehensive, because it gives equal importance to each of the aspects of the phoneme.
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