Masculine and feminine styles of communication
Masculine speech styles are competitive and seek to establish a pecking order or hierarchy. Examples of this kind of speech include interrupting, competitive banter, and one-ups.
An interruption, which occurs when a second speaker breaks into a first speaker’s discourse at a point when transition isn’t evident, violates the rules of turn taking. It can be used to disagree with, establish dominance over, or steal the floor from a rival speaker. Competitive banter is an exchange of playful, teasing remarks designed to challenge the status of another individual during conversation. Banter is often used in apparent jest, but it still creates and enforces an atmosphere of social hierarchy. One-ups are statements and boasts that are designed to keep a speaker in a higher status ranking than another individual. A conversation that uses these types of speech suggests a constant jockeying for position.
Feminine styles of communication seek to find common ground and make connections. Examples of feminine speech include back channeling, up-talk, tag questions, and hedges.
Back channeling is the use of words or phrases that show agreement, indicate comprehension, or encourage a speaker to continue. Common interjections like “right” or “mm-hmm,” or even a simple nod of the head, are back channeling. Tag questions are brief, rhetorical questions placed at the end of declarative sentences. Whenever you add an “isn’t it,” “okay,” or “weren’t you” to the end of a statement, you are using tag questions. They can be used to communicate slight uncertainty or to soften the severity of a request. Up-talk means speaking with a rising intonation at the end of a declarative sentence. Similar to tag questions, up-talk turns a statement into a question, but without altering the grammar of the statement. Hedges are modifying words such as “like,” “you know,” or “sort of” that are used to lessen the impact of what is said. All of these types of speech serve to find common ground in communication.
34.Discourse and identity
Identity is the ways people display who they are to each other. Identity is found in society and principally forged by or through discourse. Identity is discourse-faceted as people switch into different roles in different situations and they may have a shift in conflicting and contrasting identities. Identity is not something which is fixed or given to a person forever, it is constantly constructed and reconstructed, we are negotiating our identity through our life, the question of identity is not only how we perceive ourselves but also how other people perceive us. Identity is a two-way construction, sometimes identity may be only temporary, one of the ways of establishing our identity (or of other people) is the language ( discourse to be more precise), there are other factors as well: 1) behaviour adds to our identity ,2) social group, 3) ethnic group, 4) accent, 5)education
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It is true that people can convey their identities through many symbols, such as clothing, demeanour, or the use of certain objects, the single most important system of symbols for expressing and negotiating identities is language. The relations between language and identity have been at the centre of sociolinguistic research since the 1960s. William Labov (1966 and 1972a), for example, illustrated how categories such as class, gender and age determined the way people pronounced its sounds. He showed, for instance, that the habit of dropping the ‘r’ sound in words like ‘fourth’ or ‘floor’ correlated with social class, so that people belonging to the lower classes were far more likely to drop their ‘rs’ than people who belonged to upper classes.(language variation in society)
Linguistic items, which help to identify the Identity: 1) accent, 2) words with partial equivalent, 3) grammatical units
The ways we make our identity visible involves not only language but acting and thinking in certain ways, it also involves talking in appropriate ways (with the usage of appropriate words) in an appropriate place at appropriate time.
Types of identity:
Individual identity is revealed when people negotiate our own identity as individuals and are responsible for the kinds of image they project (for example, when we are engaged in a conversation with a friend
Collective identity is revealed when people use the identity of the community they represent (for example, in a public meeting or in an institutional encounter talking as members of a group, or as a member of a political party or a firm).
While some identities will have personal and concrete referents (John Brown), others such as those related to national or religious communities may be very abstract and not be associated with particular people (Americans). In addition to these distinctions between individual and collective identities, we must also consider the differences between personal and social identities. Social identities are large categories of belonging such as those pertaining to race, gender, and political affiliation (Latinos, Catholics, etc.), while personal identities are constructs that may include not only sets of membership categories, but also moral and physical characteristics that distinguish one person from another (a courageous person).
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Situational identities may be seen as roles related to the specific context of interaction such as those of teacher/student or doctor/patient (see Zimmerman, 1998, on this point)
Identity whether it is at the individual, social, or institutional level is something, what we are always building and negotiating all our life through communication.
Conceptual integration
Conceptual blending, also called conceptual integration or view application, is a theory of cognition developed by Gilles Fauconnier and Mark Turner. According to this theory, elements and vital relations from diverse scenarios are "blended" in asubconscious process, which is assumed to be ubiquitous to everyday thought and language.
Conceptual blending is a basic mental operation that leads to new meaning, global insight, and conceptual compressions useful for memory and manipulation of otherwise diffuse ranges of meaning. It plays a fundamental role in the construction of meaning in everyday life, in the arts and sciences, and especially in the social and behavioral sciences. The essence of the operation is to construct a partial match between two inputs, to project selectively from those inputs into a novel 'blended' mental space, which then dynamically develops emergent structure. It has been suggested that the capacity for complex conceptual blending ("double-scope" integration) is the crucial capacity needed for thought and language.
The mental space will include different
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As our thoughts unfold, are getting evoked, what is made of those thoughts will be inc
Mental spaces may be built from many resources, various sources. At the same time they could come from some immediate situation. May come from our working memory, long term memory. Mental spaces are built up dynamically. Sometimes mental spaces become entrenched.
Conceptual integration is based on creativity. It is also based on partial cross space mapping. Connects some other counterparts.
The emergent structure is generated in three ways. 1. Composition of projections from the inputs. Blending can compose elements from both inputs to provide some kind of relations which do not exist in several inputs. 2. Completion is based on independently recruited frames and scenarios. We extremely rarely realize what is the extent of our own knowledge and even less the structure we are going to bring in into the blend. Blends bring along great ranges of meanings. 3. Elaboration. We elaborate blends by treating them as simulations and running them imaginatively according to the principles that had been established in the brain.
Generic space – the basis for integration.
Факонье, Тернер
Varieties of discourse
(тут я не знаю, что именно нужно, поэтому уточню на консультации. Полагаю, либо types of discourse, либо всякие political, professional и т.д.)
· Professional discourse is formed by those texts which bring together specific knowledge of the world, which, in turn, constitutes the purposes of the professional community.
· Institutional discourse imposes on subject clichés language and communication strategies as a set of speech actions aimed at achieving certain comm. purposes.
· Political discourse is the use of language to do the business or politeness that includes persuasive the use of euphemisms, the use of lang. to arouse political emotions.
· Scientific disc. – is the use of language which is organized in clear succesity paragraphs based on logic, most paragraphs begin with the general thematic point and later those points should be elaborated.
· Popular scientific discourse is defined by not so much its subjects which can be almost anything, but by the way the subject is treated.
· Mass-media disc. Claimed to be the most important textual system because of its continuous productivity, its daily penetration with some popular consciousness.
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