ГЛАВА 11 «МУЖСКОЙ МОЗГ В ЖЕНСКОМ (ИЛИ ОБЕЗЬЯНЬЕМ?) ТЕЛЕ»
1 Quoted in (Verghis, 2009), p. 26.
2 (Hoff Sommers, 2008), para. 31.
3 See (Houck, 2009).
4 (Schaffer, 2008), entry 6 (‘The next best-seller’), para. 6.
5 For example (Hines, 2006a; Tavris, 1992, p. 54).
6 Gender identity in females with CAH seems to differ, albeit modestly, from control females. See for example (Berenbaum & Bailey, 2003), who found that gender identity scores of forty-three girls with CAH were intermediate between those of tomboys and sister controls, although this was not related to degree of genital virilisation or age of genital reconstructive surgery. A retrospective study of women with CAH found that women with the severest form of CAH had significantly greater cross-gender desire compared with controls (Meyer-Bahlburg et al., 2006). Also see (Hines, 2006b), figure 1, p. S117. Note that by gender identity I mean here responses to questions like, ‘Do you ever wish you could be a boy?’ rather than confusion over gender identity.
7 (Knickmeyer, Baron-Cohen, Fane et al., 2006; Mathews et al., 2009).
8 (Knickmeyer, Baron-Cohen, Fane et al., 2006).
9 See (Hines, 2004), p. 168.
10 (Puts et al., 2008).
11 (Pasterski et al., 2005).
12 For example (Berenbaum & Hines, 1992; Nordenström et al., 2002; Pasterski et al., 2005; Servin et al., 2003).
13 (Berenbaum, 1999). Also, (Servin et al., 2003) found stronger preference for masculine than feminine careers in seven- to ten-year-old girls with CAH, compared with controls.
14 It’s been suggested, for example, that prenatal androgen levels function as ‘the seeds of career choices’ (Berenbaum & Resnick, 2007).
15 As Bleier pointed out in her critique of earlier studies in this area, ‘authors and subsequent scientists accept at face value the idea of tomboyism [such as play preferences, clothing preferences, career interests, and so on] as an index of a characteristic called masculinity, presumed to be as objective and innate a human feature as height and eye colour. Yet ‘masculinity’ is a gender characteristic and, as such, culturally, not biologically, constructed’ (Bleier, 1986), p. 150.
16 (Golombok & Rust, 1993).
17 As found by (Hines et al., 2003).
18 (Jürgensen et al., 2007). The clinical population in this study had a 46,XY karyotype with a condition causing either partial or complete androgen insensitivity.
19 (Meyer-Bahlburg et al., 2006).
20 A Lego aeroplane had to be substituted for the Lincoln Logs in the UK sample because it didn’t show the expected sex difference in the US sample (Pasterski et al., 2005). Along similar lines, an earlier study found that control girls played with Lincoln Logs more than any other toy, masculine or feminine (Servin et al., 2003). While it’s hardly the most scientific of sources, data from the Fat Brain Toys Web site suggest that parents and others underestimate how much girls will enjoy Lincoln Logs. The vast majority of these products (roughly 80 percent when I looked) are bought for boys.
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21 (Berenbaum, 1999; Jürgensen et al., 2007; Meyer-Bahlburg et al., 2004).
22 (Auyeung, Baron-Cohen, Ashwin, Knickmeyer, Taylor, Hackett et al., 2009; Hines et al., 2002). (Udry, 2000) found a relationship between maternal levels of SHBG (which, as it binds to testosterone, can be understood as an inverse measure of free testosterone – see note 3 in chapter 10) and adult gendered behaviour. As noted in the earlier footnote, it is unclear whether mT or SHBG or neither is the appropriate index of exposure of the foetus to androgens. It’s also hard to determine from the information provided in this study to what extent the gendered behaviours measured indexed cultural ascriptions versus behaviours that are more plausibly regarded as psychological predispositions. (Knickmeyer, Wheelwright et al., 2005) found no relationship between aT and gender-typed play.
23 (Berenbaum, 1999), p. 108.
24 (Burton, 1977).
25 (Hines, 2004), pp. 127 and 128.
26 (Alexander & Hines, 2002). This study design, by the way, introduces other factors that might influence why a monkey might spend longer with a ball on Monday than a doll on Tuesday. For example, something that, to a monkey, is incredibly interesting might be taking place in the enclosure on Monday, while on Tuesday he may simply be in a less playful mood.
27 Frances Burton, personal communication, July 21, 2009. The study authors suggest that the appeal of the pan to the female monkeys may have been due to its red colour.
28 As noted by Ian Gold, Frances Burton and Lesley Rogers in their personal communication with me.
29 (Hassett, Siebert, & Wallen, 2008), p. 361. Although the researchers recorded the type of interaction with the toys, these data are not presented. The results are slightly different depending on whether total frequency or total duration of interaction is used. In the former case, the contrast between male and female plush toy play is also significant.
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30 See (Hines & Alexander, 2008).
31 (Hines & Alexander, 2008), p. 478.
32 (Hassett et al., 2008), p. 363.
33 (Sax, 2006), p. 28.
34 (Mathews et al., 2009), replicating an earlier study discussed by Anne Fausto-Sterling. She points out that the idea that high foetal testosterone reduces interest in infants implies ‘that testosterone interferes with the development of interest in infants, but that some general character called nurturance, which could get directed everywhere but to children, existed independently of high androgen levels.’ (Fausto-Sterling, 2000), pp. 289 and 290.
35 (Herman, Measday, & Wallen, 2003), p. 582. It should be noted that the findings with this androgen receptor blocker are sometimes paradoxical, suggesting that it may not have a straightforward androgen-blocking effect. However, early in gestation it does have the expected feminising effect on genitalia.
36 (Burton, 1977).
37 (Itani, 1959), p. 61.
38 (Burton, 1992), p. 45.
39 (Burton, 1977), pp. 11 and 14.
40 (Mason, 2002), p. 124.
41 (Herman, Measday, & Wallen, 2003). This study found that at one year of age, females differed from males only in touch behaviour, that is, the animal briefly touches the infant with its hand, although overall infant interaction approached significance.
42 See (Itani, 1959).
43 (Burton, 1977), p. 11.
44 (Burton, 1972).
45 (Hines & Alexander, 2008), p. 479.
46 (Hines, 2004), p. 181.
47 (Hines, 2004), p. 178.
48 Quoted in (Edge, 2005b).
49 (Pinker, 2005), para. 7.
50 (Baron-Cohen, 2005).
51 (Kimura, 2005), para. 2.
52 (Pinker, 2005), para. 12.
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