Classification of adjectives. Хаймович и Роговская
With regard to the category of the degrees of comparison adjectives fall under 2 lexico-grammatical subclasses: comparables and non-comparables.
Blokh: All the adjectives are traditionally divided into 2 large subclasses: qualitative (e.g. a difficult task – a very difficult task) and relative (e.g. wood – a wooden hut, history – a historical event).
The category of the degrees of comparison of adjectives is the system of opposemes (long – longer – longest) showing qualitative distinctions of qualities.
Substantivization of adjectives.
Adj becomes substantivized. In this case they F as Ns in the s-ce and are always precede by defin.art.
Subst.adj may be of 2 kinds:
- Refer to a class of persons considered in a general sense. Such adj are plural in meaning and take a pl. verb (the old receive pensions).
To this group belong the following adj: some adj describing human condition or character (the brave, the injured, the unemployed, the young); some adj denoting nationalities (the Englishmen, the French).
If we wish to indicate a single person or a number of persons, we must add noun (The old man is fishing).
-Refer to abstract notions. They are sing and take a sing verb (the good in him overweight the bad)
The adjectives fall into 2 main grammatical subgroups:
1. pluralia tantum (the English, the rich, the unemployed) -> sets of people
2. singularia tantum (the invisible, the abstract)а abstract ideas
№10.Verbs
- Meaning: action or state
Meanings and functions:
-notional - always have a lexical meaning and independent F in s-ce
- structural - connected with some other words, form compound predicate (verbal or nominal).
Modal verbs, link verbs, and auxiliary verbs
- The form – can be expressed with the help of lexical and gram.morphemes. Gram.morph.express gram.categories of:
-mood (person,number) in indicative mood is expressed in Pr.Simple
-tense (past::present) - Only verb possesses it. gram.way of expressing time and action.
-aspect – (Cont::Non-Con) continuous form
-time correlation – perfect form
-voice (active::passive) the relation between the action and its subject
-number
Function:
- on the phrase lvl Combinability: V+N, N+V,V+Adv.
- on the s-ce lvl: predicate
character of action:
-terminative (предельные. imply a limit beyond which the action cannot continue, they have a final aim,result in view. Ex.open, close)
-non-terminative (durative. aspective difference b-n common and cont. forms can be neutralized. Ex. carry, live, speak, know)
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-mixed (ex.write)
He lived in London in 1970. - He was living in London. (at that period he was in L.)
He brought her some flowers. - He was bringing her some flowers. (2d-doesn’t mean that the flowers reached her)
№11.Category of tense
Time objective past – present – future
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Tense psychological past – present – future
The objective pres.is measured by flexions by a sec. But in psycholog.pres.time there is always some period of the past and future. (He lives for Moscow tomorrow?-with future. Are you a student?-with past)
The gram.category of tense reflects the obj.reality through the psychol.perception of time.
2-tense syst.: Past and Present and combination of modal v.(will)+inf. Shows the intention, not time.
3-tense syst.: past,pres,future.
№12.Category of aspect
- is the form of the verb which serves to express the manner in which the action is performed. It is presented in English by the opposition of the continuous aspect and the common aspect.
- The marked member is built by the auxiliary verb be + the pres. part. of the conjugated verb (be+Ving)
-non-progressive, stative V: think, understand, know, hate, love, see, taste, feel, possess, own etc. They refer to a state of affairs, rather than to an action, event or process.
- Continuous form has at least two semantic features - duration (the action is always in progress) and definiteness (the action is always limited to a definite point or period of time). Cont.f. denote simultaneous actions.BUT: Why are you always asking questions?(irritation) I’m leaving for London tomorrow (fut) – The idea of action in progress,т.е. the character of action->category of aspect, not time.
Actual meaning of cont.f. – not the idea of simultaneity, but the idea of action in progress=>the character of action In case of non-terminative v. the aspective diff.b-n common and cont.f. may be neutralized.
He lived in London in 1970. - He was living in London. (at that period he was in L.) (Neutralization)
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He brought her some flowers. - He was bringing her some flowers (2d-doesn’t mean that flowers reached her.) Terminative v., no neutralization.
№14.Category of time correlation
Perfect f. indicate relations b-n actions in time. The term “time correlation”,no misleading idea of tense.
Perfect forms are treated as 1) tense forms –PF are relative tenses, they indicate relation b-n actions in past,pres,fut. Objection: Time isn’t divided into past and before past
2) aspect forms (PF - completion or result of the action). This aspective shades of meaning are predetermined b the semantic meaning of verbs. 3 groups by character of action:
-terminative (предельные. imply a limit beyond which the action cannot continue, they have a final aim,result in view. Ex.open, close
-non-terminative (durative.) Ex. carry, live, speak, know
-mixed (ex.write)
He lived in London in 1970. - He was living in London. (at that period he was in L.)
He brought her some flowers. - He was bringing her… (2d-doesn’t mean that flowers reached her)
№13.Category of mood
is made up by a set of forms presenting the events as real facts, problematic actions or as smth absolutely unreal.Mood isform of the V which shows in what rel-n to reality is the action expressed by the speaker.
1. direct
* Indicative represents an action as real facts. Categories of tense, aspect, correlation. Times: Past, present and future with strong meaning of intention.
* Imperative represents an action as a command, urging, request. No pers. distinction. Some consider it to be special form of indic. Negat.f.are the same: Don’t go there.(im m) you don’t go there (in m).
- synthetic imp.refers to the 2nd person sing and pl and is expressed by the basic form of the verb (Go!).
- negative form requires the auxiliary do (Don't go!); do can also be used emphatically: Do be quiet! To give even more expression to an order or request addressed to the 2nd pers.
-analytical imperative requires let with the 3rd person singular and 1st/3rd person plural
- Construction “let’s+inf.” – analytical form of imp.m.for 1st&3d pers.singular or it’s a free phrase.
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2. indirect -render imaginary, desirable, problematic, contrary to reality action
* subjunctive 1&2, suppositional, conditional moods (from p.o.v. of homonymy) Ex: It’s necessary that this instruction be typed; God bless you!;She looked at me as if she didn't know me
Conditionals: 1. Real: If the weather is fine we will go..
2. Unreal: If the weather was fine, we would go.. If the weather had been fine, we would have gone..
3. IF = если NO will, IF = ли will. WHEN = Когда NO will, WHEN = что will.
*Subjunctive (from p.o.v. of polisemy – only 1 sub.m., other forms - special usages of tense forms. None of these forms distinguishes person or №.) I ask,urge,suggest,demand,insist+that smb/do smth
- Synthetic Forms
1. The pres.subj. corresponds to the bare infinitive for all persons: I insist that he come here at once!
2. The past subj.is limited to the verb were: He behaved as if he were drunk. I wish I were...
- Analytical Forms - to denote a form consisting of 1 or more primary auxiliaries and a notional v., combinations of the secondary auxiliary v. should, would, may, might, could with various forms of the inf. of a notional verb. Ex.She opened the window so that we might have some fresh air
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№17. The category of modality
- the speaker’s attitude to what he’s speaking about Modality Is one of the most important parts of predication. The other important part is temporality. 2 approaches to the category of modality:
a. Modality in the wide sense of the word
b. Narrow approach.The speaker’s attitude from the p.of v.of reality. The degree of reality of the action.
2 spheres: 1) modality of reality/unreality, which is usually marked by the category of mood. It is the morphological way of expressing modality. 2) Modality of necessity/probability, which is usually expressed by means of modal verbs, modal words and expressions.
Modality carries elements of subjectivity. But considering 2 spheres:1st - more objective & 2d-subjective.
Modality can be expressed on all levels:
1.Phonetical (intonation, emphatic stresses)
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2.Lexical (modal verbs, phrases, modal words)
3.Grammatical (morphologically by mood)
4.Syntactical (by certain syntactic structures, which are not special ways of expressing modality, but which may acquire some special modal change)
By the syntactic ways of expressing modality we mean:
1)tag-questions and pseudo-questions: e.g.: You are ready, aren’t you?
2)Sentences, which are constructed like questions, but not ?s: Ex : Do you know him? – Do I know him!
3)Pseudo-subordinate clauses (constructions which are made like subordinate clauses, but which are not subordinate in reality, which are affirmative sentences): e.g.: As if you have never heard about it!
№18.Inversion
Inversion is the change of word order. In English language there are 2 main word order patterns: 1) subject predicate adverb modifier , 2) indirect word order, when the predicate or part of predicate precedes the subject structurally. Inversion may be full and partial.
By full inversion we mean cases when the whole predicate precedes the subject. E.g. Then came the day of our meeting.
Partial – only part of predicate precedes the subject. (questions…). E.g. Do you know him?
According to the main function of the word order, in general we distinguish 3 main functions of inversion: 1) grammatical 2) communicative 3) expressive.
Grammatical: - May you be happy?
Communicative: 1) It’s used in sentences beginning “There is, there are”. E.g. There is a book. 2) It occurs in elliptical sentences (so, neither nor) e.g. I don’t like milk. Neither do I. I like milk. So do I. 3) Adverbial modifier subjunctive predicate. E.g There are two lenses at the end of the tube. At the end of the tube are 2 lenses. (= Then came the day of our meeting). 4) After such expressions as never, nowhere, little, only, seldom, hardly (then they are at the beginning of the sentence). E.g. I have never been there in my life. – Never in my life have I been there. I knew little about him. – Little did I know about him. Only when I came did I see him. Not until I was 17 did I start drinking. Not sooner had train arrived, than I saw her. (Not sooner – Past Perfect!!!).
Expressive inversion: When the predicative part is used in the beginning. E.g. Terrible was the night! Tired as he was he went on working. In came Mr. Smith (И вот он вошёл). Up flew the rocket.
№19. Phrase
The traditional Russian approach considers a phrase to be a combination of two or more notional words. Foreign linguist considers a phrase - to be a combination of at least two words, never mind their being notional or not. BUT: “at home” - a phrase & “has been reading” – gram.form, not phrase.
A ph.performs the naming F, and in this respect it’s very close to words. The difference b-n the ph. and the word is that ph. always conveys us a more narrow idea, than a word. (a house- a big house)
The problem of N+V combination: The boy reads./the boy reads.- phrase of sentence? Phrase: no capital letters, follow the punctuation marks. If it is oral speech-intonation.
Classification:
1. According to the presence or absence of kernel constituent in the phrase:
- kernel ph.- one of the constituents depends on the other. Ex: to read books
- non-kernel - the constituents are of equal value. Ex: boys and girls
Any N will be dependent on the main word in the ph.
Substitution test to differentiate b-n kernel/non-kernel ph.: if on the s-ce lvl we may drop the constituent of the ph. without breaking the identity of the s-ce it will be non-kernel ph, but in the kernel ph. the constituent which can’t be dropped is the main word.
2. According to the reference of the kernel constituent to the parts of speech:
- verb phrases(to read books),
- noun phrases(English books).
3. According to the semantic relations existing in the phrase:
- objective phrases(to read a book)
- predicative phrases (to insist on smth)
- attributive phrases(English books)
- local phrases(to arrive in Washington) (indicate place)
- temporal phrases(to come in Wednesday). (indicate time)
Ways of expressing syntactical relations in a phrase:
1. agreement- two words.(he is (not are), these(not this) books)
2. government-the main word governs the dependent word(see him)
3. enclosure - an element is insorted between the constituents of a phrase (the teacher - not a phrase. The new teacher-phrase).
4. Prepositions and conjunctions (boys and girls).
5. word order (the boy hit the girl).
Absence of agreement: In modern English we can use objective form in the function of the subject and predicate: Who is there? Me (subj). It’s me.
The most significant ways of expressing syntactical relations in a phrase are prepositions and word order, because only these two ways actually show the syntactical meaning of a word in a sentence.
№20. Sentence.
S-ce is a unit of communication. S-ces are usually defined from 2 points of view:
- logical approach: a s-ce is always defined as a group of words, which expresses a complete thought.
-lang. approach: a sentence is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate.
If we limit ourselves by these definitions then we are to exclude from the s-ces those, which don’t have the subject. (Go! Take it! The dusk of a summer night.)
Conclusion: there are no objective criteria to judge if the thought, expressed by the group of words, is complete or not.
Lots of definitions, but they all include the following points: 1) a s-ce is a complete thought. 2) a s-ce is the means of communication.
When communication takes place the following three phenomena are always observed:
the act of speech, the speaker, the reality, observed by the speaker or the writer.
These 3 phenomena change with every act of speech, they are called variables. As variables they are always present in each act of speech and as constants they are fixed in the language.
1) The act of speech - is the event to which all other events, mentioned in the sentences, are related. This relation is expressed grammatically by tenses and lexically by words (tomorrow, today).
2) The speaker - is a person with whom all other persons and things, mentioned in the s-ce, are correlated. Grammatically, they express this correlation in the cat. of person in the verb and lexico-gram.with the help of all other words in the sentence.
3) The speaker’s attitude to reality is gramm.expressed in the category of mood and lexically by modal verbs and lexically by modal verbs and modal words.
These 3 relations (to the act of speech, to the speaker, to the reality) represent the relation to the situation of speech and the relation of 3rd expressed in the sentence to the situation of speech is called predicativity. It’s the most important part of the sen-ce and also called “the structural meaning” of the s-ce. Thus the s-ce can be defined as a communicative unit, made up of words according to their combinability, and structurally united by predicativity and intonation.
№21. Classification of sen.
S.as a comm..unit performs differ. comm.roles. From the communicative p.o.v. s-ces are divided into:
declarative, interrogative, exclamatory, imperative.
The com-ve types of s-ce. are distinguished in speech - by intonation and in writing - by punctuation.
Simple s-ces:
Depending on the presence of secondary members. s-ces are classified into:
extended and unextended.
S. being gram. units are class-ed into:
- 2 member sent.
- 1 member sent. – present a ground for argument and it concerns the name of 1-memb.s-ces.
The traditional approach: 1-m s-ce consisting of nouns - subject s-ce. And of verbs- predicate s-ces.
The main objection is that a word may be classified as a subj. or pred.only when both of them are present in the structure of the s-ce. ->more correct to call the member of 1-m. s-ce.by the part of speech to which this member belongs: noun-s-ce : Dusk on the summer night. Verb s-ce : Go !
2-member s-ces may be:
- elliptical (either one or more members of the s-ce are dropped out. The subj. or the pred.or both of them are not expressed, but implied in the text and may be added to a s-ce if necessary) (Usually in colloquial sp.) Elliptical s-ces m.b: extended or unextended.Ex: Who brought these bills? – The postman (unex.). The postman with the morning mail (ext.)
- non-elliptical
Composite s-ces:
- Compound – Principal clause + Coordinate clause. Joint by conj. And & by
- Complex –Principal clause + subordinate clause.
The semantic and structural connections b-n elementary s-ces within a complex one are closer than those b-n elementary s-ces within a compound s-ce.
№22. Members of the s-ce
No perfect definition of a primary member of the s-ce:
Subject:
- a word or a group of words about which smth is said, then in the s-ce “John promised Mary a gold ring” we can find at least 3 words about which smth is said.
- denotes a thing which is specified or determined by a pred.=>we must admit that the role of the pred.is to specify the subject. If so, than there is no difference between “a girl blushes” & “a blushing girl”
The main drawbacks - definitions are based only on the logical characteristics of the sub. There are no gram.criteria in these definitions.
- is the primary member of a 2-m. s-ce which is gram-ly independent of the other memb. of the s-ce & on which the 2nd primary members of the s-ce, the predicate, is gram-ly dependent.
- denotes the thing whose action or characteristics are expressed by the predicate & it’s not dependent on any other members of the s-ce.
From 2 definitions => the grammatical dependence of the predicate on the subject is opened to objections. Ex: He is small – The family is small. The family are early risers.
The meaning of the whole sent-ce depends not only on the subject but also on the predicate.
1) Personal subject denotes a person or a thing in a broad sense (it may be expressed by any notional word/phrase/morpheme/sound (“O” is a back vowel))
2) Impersonal subject neither denotes nor points to any person/thing and serves only as a structural element of the s-ce. It is used in s-ces which describe diff. states of nature or things in general or which denote time or distance (It is spring/It is hot. One must be careful)
Predicate:
- most important element in the act of comm.,b-se the pred.bares predication. The universal means of expressing it - is intonation, but every lang has its own specific ways of expressing pred grammatically. For the Eng lang the categories of pred expressed by the finite forms of the verbs are:
1) The cat. of mood (the most import. -shows rel. b-n the action or state expressed by the pred& reality)
2) The category of tense (indicates the time of the action)
3) The cat. of person & number are gram-ly expressed in the 3d person, pr forms & the V “to be”
Some linguists also find the cat. of declaration & question, affirmation &negation. The reason is that the past & the present simple distinguish between these categories by a special verb paradigm.
Types of predicate:
· Verbal
- simple – 1. the verb forms 2. Phr.units which render a sing.idea(has been reading; take care of)
- compound - more than 1 word & each word possesses its own lexical meaning. Meaning of the 1st V.:
* modal – 1. modal V; 2. emotive V(express the speaker’s attitude to this action) Ex: want
* aspect - describes a phrase in the development of the action. Ex:begin, finish, end
· Nominal
- simple- only N. There are no objective criteria to differentiate b-n simple nominal pred & 1 m. s-ces.
- compound - of a link verb (to be) & a predicative.
Difficulty: CNP or SVP in passive voice? The possibility to transform the structure into the s-ce with the actor introduced by the prep. “by”. Ex: The window was opened (CNP) – The window was open (SVP)
Semantic classification of predicates:
1) Process predicates (simple verbal) – He came. He arrived.
2) Qualifying (compound nominal) – He is a doctor.
3) Objective (“to have” + an object, to contain, to consist…) – I have many friends
4) Adverbial (“to be” + adv/adverbial phr. with the mean.of place or time) He is in Moscow. It’s 5 o’clock.
№23. Actual division of the sentence
Grammarians distinguish grammatical & informative division of s-ce. Gram-ly s-ces are divided according to the members present in the s-сe. There are primary and secondary members. The secondary memb. of the s-ce are usually associated with a subj.or a pred. The attribute may modify not only the subj.but the obj. also.Attributive semantic rel-s may accompany practically all memb.of the s-ce.
The actual division of the s-ce. Purpose - to review the informative value of each word in the s-ce.
In terms of actual division all s-ces are divided into:
- Rheme s-ces – new info
- theme s-ces – the info is known
Also called structural division => any s-ce is aimed at giving some new info, developing the info of the previous s-ce. The inform.division of the s-ce plays more significant role than the gram.division, b-se the main aim is communication. It’s also important follow the means of the language in order to use them adequately to show the info which is new and which is known.
Formal means of expressing the distinction between the rheme & the theme
1) Word order is the position of sense groups in a s-ce. Their position is arranged according to the role which they play in the utterance. Such position or arrangement is called semantic, b-se sense groups possess diff. comm.-ive value. In Rus.stylistically neutral declarative s-ces have communicatively important sense groups. The rheme is placed at the end of the s-ce. Each next word in a s-ce possesses more info than the previous one. The most import. word/phr. is usually placed at the end.(Вчера я получил от брата письмо/Вчера я получил письмо от брата àrheme (predicativity)). In Eng. where the word order is gram-ly fixed it might seem impossible to consider the word order as a means of expressing the theme & the rheme, but statistical data show that in 94% of Eng.s-ces which are stylistically neutral the rheme occupies the end of the s-ce. The last word in the sent-ce is the focus of info. Ex: “I wrote a letter to my friend” & “I wrote my friend a letter” are different.
2) Intonation being a structural form of the s-ce plays the most import. role in the comm. It is intonation that makes gram-ly identical s-ces different communicatively. It is used to show logically more import. words in the s-ce. The reason for argument among linguists is that in writing we use punctuation marks which can’t indicate all varieties of intonation. But written speech is nothing else but recorded (oral) speech & to pronounce the s-ce with a more correct intonation we must know the situation.
3) Articles and other N modifiers – 2d important role. (the – theme, a – rheme. But! Very often the definite article is used in the rhematic group – “give me the book, please!”. I saw a man. The man was..)
4) Other means of expressing the rheme – s-ces beginning with ‘it”. Ex: It’s a table that I want to buy.
- Intensifying particles (only, even) – rheme and empathic “do” – theme
- General questions, which are pronounced with diff.intonation
№24. Text and discourse
Text – the highest unit of speech. We speak not in s-ces, but in texts.
Traditionally text is defined as a sequence of linguistic units, joint together by semantic connections and characterized by integrity and cohesion.
In order to make ourselves understood, we have to produce a whole sequence of s-ces, which forms discourse – the process of commun. Discourse – alive, text – frozen discourse, fixed product of disc.
Categories of text:
1. Semantic:
- info – main purpose of commun. Any T.should carry a complete info
- profundity –T.sh.have some depth,some food for thinking,some idea, which m.b. understood implicitly.
- presupposition – The shed of knowledge. Should be some lvl at which people communicate
- completeness – T. should be complete
2. Structural
- integration – We may use certain logical connections and connectors, a certain composition and a certain word order
- cohesion – to provide logical connection with the help of logical connectors: conj., articles
- prospection – description of future effect/event
- retrospection- description of past events of the story
- continuum – a T.should continue without breaking, shouldn’t be abrupt.
- polyphony – expresses the idea that a good T.usually has more than 1 line of thinking, of reasoning which is most important for fiction.
What provides cohesion and continuum of a T.?Tense forms, mood f. & number f.
Types of text:
- narrative – most important things, which provides retrospection and prospection are forms, which express time and words, which express space.
- descriptive – has temporal and spacious characteristics
- dialog
Difference b-n dialog and description: Description – the most important are spacious char.,which consider space, not time. Dialog – the most import. are dynamic means. Colloquial words, interjections.
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