Adverbs Or Adjectives: confusing cases.
1. Some words ending in –ly are normally adjectives not adverbs. Common examples: costly, cowardly, deadly, friendly, likely, lively, lonely, silly, ugly, unlikely. There are no adverbs friendlily, lovelily. Compare: She gave me a friendly smile. – She smiled in a friendly way. ( BUT NOT: She smiled friendly.) He gave a silly laugh. (BUT NOT: He laughed silly.)
2. Daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, early and leisurely are both adjectives and adverbs. It’s a daily paper. (ADJ)- It comes out daily. (ADV); an early train (ADJ)- I got up early. (ADV)
ADJECTIVES: -IC or –ICAL?
| Many adjectives end in –ic or –ical. There is no general rule to tell you which form is correct in a particular case. Some adjectives ending in –ic: Some of these words ended in –ical in older English, e.g. fantastical.. New adjectives which come into the language generally end in –ic, except for those in –logical. | Academic, artistic, athletic, catholic, domestic, dramatic, emphatic, energetic, fantastic, linguistic, majestic, neurotic, pathetic, phonetic, public, semantic, syntactic, systematic, tragic. |
| Some adjectives ending in –ical: | Biological (and many other adjectives ending in –logical), chemical, critical, grammatical, logical, mathematical, medical, musical, physical, surgical, tactical, topical. |
| In some cases both forms exist but with a difference in meaning: Classic – classical Classic usually refers to a famous or supreme example of its type. Classical refers to the culture of ancient Greece or Rome, or to European works of art of the so-called “classical period” in the 18th century. Classical music often refers simply to any serious music, especially older music. Comic – comical Comic is the normal adjective for artistic comedy. Comical is a rather old-fashioned word meaning “funny”. Economic – economical Economic refers to the science of economics, or to the economy of a country, state, etc. Economical means ‘not wishing money”. Electric – electrical Electric is used with the names of particular machines that work by electricity. Note also: an electric shock, an electric atmosphere (full of excitement). Electrical is used before more general words. Historic – historical Historic is used in the sense of “making history”. Historical means “connected with history” or “really existing in history”. NOTE: a historic event is one that is important or famous, while a historical event is one that is supported by the evidence of history. | Vosne Romanee is a classic French wine. She’s studying classical languages. It’s hard to learn classical guitar. Comic verse, comic opera Shakespeare’s comic technique A comical expression Economic theory, economic problems An economical little car Electric heater, electric motor Electrical appliances, electrical equipment, electrical engineering Historic date, historic conference, historic ground, historic spots Historical research, a historical novel, a historical figure |
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Adjectives ending in –ed: pronunciation
A few adjectives ending in –ed have a special pronunciation: the last syllable is pronounced /id/ instead of /d/ or /t/. They are aged (=very old), naked, beloved, ragged, blessed, rugged, crooked, sacred, cursed, wicked, dogged, wretched, learned, one/two/three/four-legged.
Exercises
Exercise 1
State the morphological composition of the following adjectives.
Pretty, bushy, weather-stained, thoughtful, hard-hearted, illegitimate, sober, non-party, low-bred, improbable, skeptical, counter-revolutionary, careworn, beloved, wicked, disobedient, long-legged, regular, water-proof, large, well-timed, homeless, shaky, courageous, panic-stricken, blindfold, Portuguese, newly-baked, antique, peace-making, forlorn, illegible, abundant, red-haired, small, deep-blue, bookish, snow-white, respectable-looking.
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Exercise 2
Compound adjectives are made of two parts and are usually joined by a hyphen. Join words from box A to words from box B to make synonyms for the adjectives in box C.
A absent- big- easy- quick- self- stuck- warm- two-
B assured faced going headed hearted minded up witted
C a) forgetful d) arrogant g) intelligent
b) hypocritical e) kind h) relaxed
c) confident f) snobbish
Work with a partner. Describe members of your family or close friends using these compound adjectives. See if your partner would like to meet them!
Exercise 3
Read the following compound adjectives and translate them into Ukrainian. Answer the questions that follow.
Newly-arrested
Slow-moving
Well-informed
Good-looking
Quick-thinking
Wealthy-looking
Record-breaking
Roughly-dressed
Stress-induced
Well-behaved
Softly-spoken
Grey-haired
Fair-skinned
Time-consuming
Smartly-dressed
Sad-faced
Comfort-loving
Grey-gloved
a) What would you call someone who has good manners?
b) What would you call someone who loses their temper quickly?
c) What would you call someone who loves having fun?
d) What would you call someone who dries quickly?
e) What would you call something that has been made carefully?
f) What would you call something that will save your time?
g) What would you call something that looks tasty?
h) What would you call something that dries quickly?
Exercise 4
Replace the clauses in italics with compound adjectives. Make any other changes that are necessary.
Model: They’ve invented a new device which will save energy.
They’ve invented a new energy-saving device.
1. The building was a real eyesore; it had been built very cheaply.
2. She was wearing a new perfume that smelt very sweet and didn’t really suit her.
3. He had received a good education and could speak knowledgeably on a range of topics.
4. He thinks quickly and always makes intelligent contributions.
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5. Her skin is smooth and she has a beautifully clear complexion.
6. We bought some gorgeous plates that were made by hand.
7. Peter’s parents have very broad minds – they let him do whatever he wants.
Use each compound adjective of this exercise to describe someone or something you know.
Exercise 5
Match the prefixes in box A with the adjectives in box B to make the adjectives negative.
A un- in- ir- im- il-
B capable adventurous
legible interesting
patient usual
decisive resistible
Exercise 6
Read the following story carefully. Complete the text by using the prefixes or suffixes from the box to rewrite the adjectives in brackets. The first two have been done for you.
Prefixes: un- ir- dis-
Suffixes: -less -ful -ish
Never Again!
I hate traveling. It’s not that I’m unwilling (willing), it’s just that I’ve got a problem. Three problems actually, and they are called Charlie, Ella and Jack. Ranging in age from eleven down to three, they’re irresistible (resistible) when they’re asleep. But when they’re awake they’re (1) _____ (relent). Individually they’re hard work; in twos they’re a handful; all together, they’re a nightmare. More often than not they’re (2) ______ (obedient) and seem to have endless competitions to see who can behave in the most (3) _____ (devil) way. On top of that, they all want my (4) _____ (divided) attention at the same time.
Under these (5) _____ (stress) circumstances, you may think that it would be foolish of me to even consider traveling alone with my children. Well, I know now that it wasn’t just foolish, but downright (6) _____ (responsible).
I wanted to visit my parents. My husband couldn’t come, so I set off on the five-hour train journey with a bagful of toys, a pocketful of sweets and a headful of songs, stories and games.
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But (7) _____ (regard) of my careful preparations, the journey was (8) _____ (hell): it was one of the worst experiences of my life. The final straw was when I arrived, exhausted and (9) ____ (tear), at my parents’ house. Instead of being sympathetic, they took great delight in telling me how awful I had been as a child. Thanks, Mum and Dad, that was really (10) _____ (help)!
Exercise 7
Give adjectives corresponding to:
Policy, economy, Germany, nature, sun, wind, rain, fog, hope, use, home, respect, bore, frighten, interest, amuse, wool, wood, silk, gold, depend, complicate, pleasure, courage.
Exercise 8
Write down adjectives opposite in the meaning to the following:
Courageous, wild, hot, heavy, narrow, beautiful, civilized, strong, slow, cruel, soft, expensive, healthy, new, clean, friendly.
Exercise 9
Fill in the gap with the correct adjective.
1. I couldn’t work out who the letter was from. The signature was _____. I know Shakespeare is very popular but I find him totally _____. (unreadable / illegible)
2. Sarah is so _____. She is always having temper tantrums. It was so wonderful to watch the tiny lambs playing, I got such _____ pleasure from the experience. (childish / childlike)
3. Sophie is extremely _____ at the moment, anything you say seems to upset her. Karen is not a very _____ person; she wore high-heeled shoes for our four-mile walk. (sensible / sensitive)
4. I’ve never known her to tell a lie; she is a very _____ person. I can never watch sad films that are based on a _____ story; they always make me cry. (true / truthful)
5. Susan is so _____ of other; she never accepts anyone else’s opinion, and always thinks she knows best. I find Mark’s behaviour _____; it’s unfair to be so selfish. (intolerable / intolerant)
6. We are having an _____ crisis at the moment; James has lost his job and I don’t know how we are going to pay the mortgage. It’s more _____ to drive slowly; you can do a lot of more miles to the gallon. ( economic / economical)
7. The result was a _____ disappointment to us, though the lawyer outlined a _____ defence. (great, large / powerful, strong)
Exercise 10
Point out all the substantivized adjectives and state whether they are fully or partially substantivized.
1. He basked in the company of the young.
2. We must take the bitter along with the sweet.
3. She warned the domestics not to touch the child, as Mrs. Osborne must be offended.
4. It was a surprise to the optimistic: but it was even more of a surprise to the experienced.
5. I know he is a right good fellow, but it belongs to the rank of the impossible.
6. Mary turning her glance from one to the other of the “old dears”, only smiled.
7. How do I know what’s gone on between you? The rights and the wrongs of it. I don’t want to know.
8. He was wearing greens, garrison hat, and all his ribbons.
9. They were like poor savages confronted with a beautiful white girl.
10. This year I covered half the world and saw people in such numbers – it seems to me I saw everybody but the dead.
11. But they had been such innocents then!
12. He was, as they saw it, part of the rich and superior class and every poor man knew what they meant. The poor must stand together everywhere.
13. I was soon to discover that Sheila was never interested in what “inferiors” had to say.
Exercise 11
The following adjectives describe people’s physical characteristics. List them as in the example. Some of them can be used more than once.
Blue, short, oval, tiny, straight, medium-height, dark, slim, upturned, muscular, brown, wavy, freckled, overweight, blond, almond-shaped, long, plump, wrinkled, ugly, shabby, crooked, elegant, attractive, Roman, fashionable, slanting, tall, casual, curly, green, well-built.
e.g. _____________________________________________________________________
Height build face eyes nose hair clothes
_____________________________________________________________________
Tall well-built pretty green straight curly casual
_____________________________________________________________________
Exercise 12
The following adjectives describe people’s personal characteristics: lazy, intelligent, practical, reliable, patient, unstable, generous, boring, optimistic. Choose the most appropriate one to fill in the sentences.
1. Mary is a very ____________ person. You can always count on her what you ask her to.
2. He tends to be ___________ . His mood is likely to change at any time.
3. He is a very ___________ person; he puts in very little effort at work.
4. Mick can often be _____________ ; he has a tendency to repeat the same old stories.
5. She has a very _________ outlook on life; she never expects anything to go wrong.
6. The teacher is very ____________ with her students; she always explains things several times.
7. The little boy is so ____________ that he can do big brother’s homework.
8. My uncle is very __________ ; he always gives money to charity.
9. My son is very ___________ ; he is full of energy and high spirits.
10. My husband is very ___________ . He repairs everything around the house.
Exercise 13
The following adjectives describe objects. Put them in order, as in the example:
Enormous, ancient, light, rubber, round, modern, little, purple, Spanish, British, steel, childish, flat, Chinese, metal, heavy, red, square, disgusting, new, black
Opinion size/weight age shape colour origin material noun
A beautiful large old round blue Egyptian woolen carpet
Exercise 14
Read the following report and put the adjectives into the correct order, then cover the text and try to describe the suitcase.
On May 20, 1996, I was travelling from New York to Montreal on the 8.30 am express train. However, due to an expected transfer via Boston on the 11.50 am train to Montreal my luggage was lost. The missing item is a(n) ( leather, old, square) suitcase. Each corner of the suitcase is covered by a ( dark, small, leather ) patch, which is fastened by ( metal, tiny, round ) studs. The suitcase is covered with many ( paper, colourful, interesting ) labels, and has got a handle. There are also two ( metal, silver, small ) locks on either side of the handle. The suitcase contains mostly clothes and also a ( black, plastic, new ) hairdryer, and a ( grey, Japanese, lightweight ) camera. If the suitcase is found, please contact me at this telephone number: (617)555-1877 between the hours of 9am – 5pm daily.
Exercise 15
Put the adjectives in brackets in the correct position.
Model: a beautiful table (wooden round) – a beautiful round wooden table.
1. an unusual ring (gold)
2. an old lady (nice)
3. a good-looking man (young)
4. a modern house (attractive)
5. black gloves (leather)
6. an American film (old)
7. a large nose (red)
8. a sunny day (lovely)
9. a hot bath (nice)
10. an ugly dress (orange)
11. a red car (old / little)
12. a metal box (black / small)
13. a long face (thin)
14. a wide avenue (long)
15. a big cat (fat / black)
16. a little village (old / lovely)
17. long hair ( fair / beautiful)
18. an old painting (interesting / French)
Exercise 16
Put these words in the correct order to describe clothes.
Model: a polo-neck sweater white – a white polo-neck sweater.
T-shirt an short-sleeved old;
Green a cardigan plain;
Beautiful scarf a cashmere;
Sweater a v-neck striped
Silk flowery waistcoat a
Make five new combinations of adjectives and nouns
Exercise 17
Use the following adjectives to describe any noun you like, the main task is to use two or more of them in the correct order.
Old
Stripy
Beautiful
Wool
Leather
Second-hand
Horrible
Check
Short-sleeved
New
Full-length
Fabulous
Plain
Armani
Silk
In most languages, when we use two or three adjectives to describe a noun there are rules about the order of the adjectives. Put the given adjectives in the correct order for English.
Exercise 18
Make up sentences picking one word from each of the columns below.
| Origin | shape | size | value | material | colour | Age / temperature |
| Rural New York German English domestic urban | square triangular round circular oval T-shaped | big small little heavy huge light | dirty famous brilliant talented beautiful ugly | iron plastic wooden cotton metal | blue black red green yellow brown pink | young old new cold hot warm |
Exercise 19
Translate into English.
1. Біля воріт стояв старий англійський автомобіль.
1. Усі газети написали про цього молодого талановитого німецького драматурга.
2. На круглому маленькому столику з червоного дерева лежав незакінчений лист.
3. Молода чарівна француженка увійшла до кафе.
4. У неї не залишилося нічого, крім старого вовняного плаття коричневого кольору.
5. Він був молодим високим нью-йоркським поліцейським.
6. До будинку вела стара напівзруйнована дорога.
7. Я давно мріяла купити невелике кругле дзеркало для ванної кімнати.
8. Величезний натовп розлючених вкладників вимагав повернути їм гроші.
9. Ця велика нещаслива слабка домашня тварина викликала загальне співчуття.
10. Зимовий холодний пронизливий вітер не міг зруйнувати теплу щиру атмосферу в кімнаті.
11. Таке легке рожеве шовкове плаття могло б прикрасити будь-яку дівчину.
12. Молоді незалежні африканські держави набувають все більшого впливу у світовій політиці.
13. Довга розкішна атласна чорна сукня виявилася для нас занадто дорогою.
14. Молодий недосвідчений хімік із Франції здивував увесь світ своїм відкриттям.
Exercise 20
Comment on the use of the underlined adjectives.
1. She was his oldest child.
2. “Come and shake hands with Mr. Carey, Sally”. He turned to Philip. “Isn’t she enormous? She’s my eldest. How old are you, Sally?” “Fifteen, father, come next June”.
3. Mary climbed hastily into the nearest compartment and was lost to sight.
4. No further news had come.
5. The last laugh died away.
6. The latest news was very important.
7. The wooden bridge was nearly three quarters of a mile across.
8. She sent him a gold cigarette case.
9. The sand was golden yellow as if the sun struck through the water all the way to the bottom of the sea.
Exercise 21
Translate into Ukrainian. Pay attention to the degrees of comparison of the adjectives.
1. He made her feel like the most interesting, fascinating girl in the world.
2. Our teacher is the most pleasant and intelligent young man.
3. It was no longer possible to hear exactly what she said. Ann was the quickest in the hospital of guessing what Jill’s remarks might be.
4. The greatest ideas are the simplest.
5. He greeted me like his dearest friend.
6. At last we are here; the forest is the most beautiful in Africa.
7. He was the most anxious to get to the camp in time.
8. Wells regarded him with the greatest kindness.
Exercise 22
Give the comparative and superlative degrees of the following adjectives:
Strong, wide, happy, greedy, beautiful, difficult, dangerous, useful, important, magnificent, fortunate, courageous, good, bad, little, many.
Exercise 23
Use the appropriate form of the adjective given in brackets and supply the article where necessary.
1. The hall was (full) when they arrived, but it seemed ever (fuller) now.
2. His shirt looked (yellow) than usual.
3. “Of all the (stupid) questions I’ve ever been asked,” he said angrily, “that’s (stupid).
4. This path is (narrow) than that one.
5. You’re (charming) girl I’ve ever seen in my life and (delightful).
6. She had never given anyone to understand that she was (poor) than the rest.
7. Runway zero-eight was (long) of the airport’s three runways.
8. How (handsome) he was! He was (handsome) man in the party.
9. Oh, you’re (wonderful), you’re (wonderful) girl in the whole world.
10. His eyes are (true) things I ever saw.
11. She was (thin) and (white) than when last he had seen her.
Exercise 24
Use the appropriate form of the adjective given in brackets.
1. His age was fifty; he looked several years (old).
2. The (old) brother came from the stable and Bill stood still, hands clenched.
3. Jim was (old) by only four years but already there was grey in his hair and deep lines in his face.
4. Uncle Charles and Dante clapped. They were (old) than his father and mother but Uncle Charles was (old) than Dante.
5. Ann went downstairs to the dining-room, where her husband, his parents and his three (old) children were assembled for luncheon.
Exercise 25
Fill in the appropriate comparative and superlative forms.
I think that the north of Scotland is one of ________ (beautiful) places I’ve ever been to. The water in the lochs is ________ (clear) I’ve ever seen and I believe that it must be the ________ (picturesque) area in the world. Northern Scotland has _______ (majestic) mountains in Britain and it’s ___________ (green) than anywhere else I’ve been to. The mysterious question of whether or not the “Loch Ness Monster” exists, makes it all _________ (interesting). I certainly can’t think of anywhere else __________ (good) to go for a relaxing break than bonny Scotland.
Exercise 26
Fill in the missing adjectives in the proper degree. Analyze the adjectives used in the song.
Long, green, big, handsome, large, beautiful, strong.
A Bigger Heart
His arms are stronger than mine
His legs are ______ than mine
His car’s always cleaner
And his grass is always _____.
But my heart is ____ than his
And my love for you is stronger than his.
He’s more ____, much more elegant
More charming and more polite than me
He’s more responsible, much more dependable
He is everything I long to be.
His office is ____ than mine
His martinis are drier than mine
His roses are much ____
And his faults are far fewer.
But my heart is ____ than his
And my love for you is ____ than his.
Exercise 27
Complete the sentences using the adjectives given below in the proper degree:
Beautiful, thin, cold, good, large, pleasant, interesting, short, close, bright, young, comfortable, old, kind, interested, expensive, bad, sad, crowded, disappointed.
1. It gets _____ and _____ in autumn and the days become _____ and _____. But Indian summer is a very _____ and _____ time of the year.
2. We all grow _____ with years.
3. You look _____. What’s the matter? – I feel _____.
4. I’ll try to do my _____ to help you. – Thank you. It’s very _____ of you.
5. The hotel was surprisingly cheap. We expected it to be much _____.
6. This flat is too small for our family. We need something ______ but not very _____.
7. The Moon is _____ neighbour to the Earth.
8. Venus is _____ planet in our solar system.
9. I prefer watching TV sitting in this old armchair. It’s _____ than a new one.
10. There were a lot of people on the bus. It was _____ than usual.
11. This jacket is too small for you. You need _____ size.
12. You look _____. Have you lost your weight?
13. He is not keen on his studies. He’s _____ in having a _____ time.
14. I was _____ with the film. It was not _____ for me to see it.
15. A man is as _____ as he looks and no _____ than he feels.
Exercise 28
Supply the proper degree of comparison.
1. Trust a man who hesitates in his speech and is (quick) and (steady) in actions.
2. The (little) men think the (much) they talk.
3. Prevention is (good) than cure. The public is (good) judge.
4. It is good to be clever, but it is (good) to be industrious.
5. Some people have (much) money than brains.
6. Australia is (large) island in the world.
7. He would (soon) die than tell a lie.
8. The Times is one of (powerful) newspapers in England.
9. “What is (good) film you’ve ever seen?” – “I’ve seen so many good films that I can’t say which one is (good)”.
10. We had a great holiday. It was one of (great) holidays we have ever had.
11. The hotel we stayed at was (cheap) than all the others in the town.
12. Everest is (high) mountain in the world. It is (high) than any other mountain.
13. What’s (quick) way of getting from here to the station?
14. It was an awful day. It was (bad) day in my life.
15. “Are you (old) in your family?” – “No, I’m (young) in our family”.
16. Why do you always come to see me at (bad) possible moment?
17. I spent (little) money than you but I spent (much) than my mother did.
18. There are (few) people at this match than at the last one.
19. Now her hair isn’t as (long) as it is used to be.
20. The Nile is (long) river in the world at 6.741 kilometers – slightly (long) than the Amazon, which is the second (long) at 6.440 kilometers.
21. The (big) city in the world is Tokyo – Yokohama with a population of about 28.5 million.
Exercise 29
Use the adjectives in the proper degree.
1. Spring is very busy time. It is (busy) time in the year.
2. That was (boring) film I’ve ever seen.
3. There wasn’t as (much) snow in the fields as in the forests.
4. She is a really nice person – one of (nice) people I know.
5. The (much) snow you have in winter, the (good) crop you have in summer.
6. The weather in November is not so (cold) as in December but it’s (cold) than in October.
7. No park in London is as (popular) as Hyde Park.
8. One of (famous) places of interest in London is St. Paul’s Cathedral.
9. A tram is not so (quick) as a bus. It’s one of (slow) means of transport.
10. The film is (interesting) than the book.
11. Apples are not so (expensive) as oranges, and they are (cheap) than pears.
12. He is not so (bad) as you think, but, perhaps, he is (bad) than she is.
13. My sister is (economical) than I am, but she isn’t as (economical) as our mother.
14. The river was not so (shallow) as we expected. It is one of (deep) rivers in the area.
15. “Your mother was (intelligent) and (little) naïve than you are”, my grandmother used to say.
16. One of (narrow) streets in the world is St. John’s Lane, in Rome; it is 49 sm. Wide but there is a street in Cromwell, England, that is even (narrow); it is 48 sm. (wide) in its (narrow) point.
17. Legends of (large) water-creatures in Loch Ness, an immensely (deep) lake in the north-eastern Highlands of Scotland, go back much (far) than 1993, when a motorist saw a (tremendous) upheaval in the loch.
18. Scientists have seriously suggested that (large) creatures may have been stranded in the (deep) waters of the loch when 60 million years ago it was cut off from the sea.
19. The (near) cinema is (far) from here than the (near) theatre.
20. (High and low, rich and poor, wise and foolish) people, all have the right to be happy.
21. The (young) you are, the (easy) it is to learn. The (early) you start, the (much you reach).
Exercise 30
Complete the sentences with: a) the superlative form; b) one of the + superlative.
Model: It’s a very nice house.
It’s the nicest house in our town
It’s one of the nicest houses in our town.
1. He is a very dangerous criminal. He _____ in the country.
2. The Mississippi is a long river. It’s _____ in the world.
3. I have never heard such a funny story. That’s _____ I have heard.
4. We have never made such a bad mistake. It’s _____.
5. They haven’t had to make such a difficult decision for years. It’s _____.
6. It was very bad experience. It was _____ in my life.
7. He is a very good player. He _____ in the team.
8. She is a very rich woman. She is _____ in the world.
Exercise 31
Use: a) as … as; b) not so … as / not as …as.
Model: My grandfather is younger than he looks.
a) My grandfather isn’t as old as he looks.
b) My grandfather is not so old as he looks.
a) The examination was more difficult than we expected.
b) The weather is warmer today than it was yesterday.
c) The situation is still unpleasant but yesterday it was worse.
d) I was a bit nervous before the interview but usually I’m a lot more nervous.
e) The exhibition was less beautiful than we hoped to see.
f) This book is less interesting than the one I read last week.
g) Tokyo is exciting but for musicians London is more exciting than Tokyo and, of course, New York is the most exciting of all.
h) London is, of course, much older than New York, but it is younger than Rome.
i) New York has more parks than Tokyo, but less than London.
j) Everything is cheaper in our country than in yours.
k) The shops were more expensive than we thought.
l) The film was less interesting than I expected.
m) This business trip is less important for our firm than you think.
n) We are more tired today after our tiring job than usual.
Exercise 32
Write sentences using one of + superlative + plural noun. Use the phrases given below.
Model: famous landmark in St. Louis, Missouri. – The gateway Arch is one of the most famous landmarks in St. Louis, Missouri.
1. high mountain in the world;
2. big city in Ukraine;
3. large state in the USA;
4. small country in the world;
5. friendly person in our group;
6. good place to visit in the world;
7. famous person in the world;
8. important thing in life;
9. tall building in the world;
10. dangerous sport in the world;
11. stable currency in the world;
12. serious problem in the world.
Exercise 33
Complete the sentences and say if you agree or disagree.
Model: If you get married early, it’s better; in fact the earlier you get married the better it is.
1. If you are generous, you will be popular; in fact …
2. If you have many friends, you will be happy; in fact …
3. If you are honest, you will have fewer problems; in fact …
4. If you smoke, you will be kissed less often; in fact …
5. When you love someone, you have fewer arguments; in fact …
6. When you win an argument, you may lose a fried; in fact …
7. When you are kind, people respect you less; in fact …
8. If we work hard, we always become rich; in fact …
9. When people earn much money, they become less careful; in fact …
10. If you have much, you want more; in fact …
11. If you work hard, you always have good results; in fact …
12. If you are happy, you see few unhappy people around; in fact …
13. If you know English well, it’s easy to find a good job; in fact …
14. If a man knows many foreign languages, it’s easy for him to learn a new one; in fact …
Exercise 34
Give the Ukrainian equivalents to the following proverbs. Use them in the situations of your own.
a) Among the blind the one-eyed man is a king.
b) Appearances are deceptive.
c) Best defence is attack.
d) The devil is not so black as he is painted.
e) Dry bread at home is better than roast meat abroad.
f) False friends are worse than open enemies.
g) Fortune favours the fool.
h) Fortune favours the brave.
i) Gifts from enemies are dangerous.
j) Great talkers are little doers.
k) A good face is a letter of recommendation.
l) New Lords – new laws.
m) Of two evils choose the least.
n) Two heads are better than one.
o) Still waters run deep.
Exercise 35
Which meaning goes with which saying?
| 1. Two heads are better than one | a) Doing something late is not as bad as forgetting it completely. |
| 2. For better for worse; for richer for poorer. | b) Family ties are very strong. |
| 3. Better late than never. | c) It’s easier to find an answer if someone thinks with you. |
| 4. Better the devil you know than the devil you don’t. | d) Other situations always seem more attractive than your own situation. |
| 5. The grass is always greener on the other side. | e) In every situation in life. (Men and women say these words when they get married) |
| 6. Blood is thicker than water. | f) An unpleasant but familiar situation is better than a new one. |
| 7. Better safe than sorry. | g) It’s better not to talk about it. |
| 8. The least said the better. | h) Take precautions. |
| 9. The best things in life are free. | i) Money doesn’t buy happiness. |
| 10. It’s easier said than done. | j) It’s a nice plan but not very practical. |
Exercise 36
All of the following sentences contain errors. Find and correct them. The first sentence is given here as the example.
1. Alaska is large than Texas. – Alaska is larger than Texas.
2. Alaska is largest state in the USA.
3. Ukraine is the larger from Great Britain in land area.
4. Old shoes are usually more comfortable then new shoes.
5. My running shoes are more comfortable as my boots.
6. My running shoes are the more comfortable shoes I own.
7. Mr. Brown writes the most clearly than Mr. Klein.
8. English is the most widely used language from the world.
9. I have one sister and one brother. My sister is youngerer in the family.
10. Bill’s knife was as sharper as a razor blade.
11. I like Chinese food more better than French food.
12. A lion is as dangerous and wild than a tiger.
13. My flat is bigger that yours.
14. In my opinion, reading a novel is much more relaxing than watching a thriller.
15. Ed is the more generous person in the family.
Exercise 37
Read this selection of extraordinary “mind and body” world records. Think of at least three records which can be added to this selection. Be ready to present them to the class. Choose the most interesting information and give reasons to your choice.
| THE SHORTEST One of the shortest men was an American. Calvin Philips (1891 – 1912) weighed less than one kilo at birth and stopped growing when he was five years old. For the rest of his brief life he was just 67 centimeters tall. The shortest woman was even smaller. Pauline Musters (1876 – 95) came from Holland and measured only 61 centimeters when she was nineteen. |
| THE TALLEST The tallest man was an American called Robert Wadlow (1918 – 1940). His height was incredible – 2 meters, 72 centimeters. The tallest woman came from China. She was born in 1964, her name was Zeng Jinlian and when she died in 1982 she measured 2 meters, 47 centimeters. |
| THE MOST The most children born to one mother is 69. That’s the number of babies which an eighteenth-century Russian woman had in the years between 1720 -60. They included 16 pairs of twins, 7 sets of triplets (three babies) and 4 sets of quadruplets (four babies). |
| THE STRONGEST The strongest substance in the human body is tooth enamel (that’s the hard white substance on the surface of teeth). Can you guess where the strongest muscles in the body are? Well, the answer is in the jaw. They are the muscles which are used for chewing and biting. The longest bone in the human body is the tight bone or femur. Robert Wadlow’s femur (he was the tallest man) measured 74 centimeters. The longest fingernails are on the left hand of Shidar Chillal from India. Added together, their total length is 4.52 meters. The world record for the longest hair belongs to Marta Jagdamba from India. In March 1989 her hair was 6.4 meters long. |
Exercise 38
Practice the correct use of –ing and –ed (passive) emotive adjectives.
1. (To interest) The man is _____ in the TV game. The TV game is _____ to the man.
2. (To surprise)The teacher is ____ at the pupil’s answer. The pupil’s answer is ____ .
3. (To annoy) The girl was ____ by her friend’s indifference. Her friend’s indifference was ____ .
4. (To irritate) The woman was _____ by his habit of interrupting people. His habit of interrupting people was _____ .
5. (To tire) The students were _____ of writing a test. It was a very _____ day.
6. (To exhaust) The tourists were ____ by their long journey. The journey was too ____ .
7. (To frighten) The children were _____ by the dark. The dark was ____ .
8. (To bore) The students were ____ by the lecture. The lecture was ______ .
9. (To interest) The man is watching an _____ game. An _____ TV viewer doesn’t like to be interrupted.
10. (To surprise) The pupil made a ______ mistake. The _____ teacher was at a loss.
11. (To annoy) The noise in the corridor was ______ .The pupils heard the _____ voice of the teacher.
12. (To irritate) He had an _____ habit of interrupting people. The _____ woman stopped talking.
13. (To tire) The ____ day was dull. The _____ worker went home.
14. (To exhaust) It was an _____ experience. The _____ travelers arrived at the hotel at night.
15. (To frighten) That’s a ____ thought. The _____ child didn’t move.
16. (To bore) They disliked the _____ play. The ______ spectators didn’t want to watch the play.
Exercise 39
Choose the right adjective.
Model: I was disappointing / disappointed with the film. I had expected it to be better.
1. We were all horrifying / horrified when we heard about the disaster.
2. It’s sometimes embarrassing / embarrassed when you have to ask people for money.
3. Are you interesting / interested in football?
4. I enjoyed the football match. It was quite exciting / excited.
5. It was a really terrifying / terrified experience. Afterwards everybody was shocking / shocked.
6. I had never expected to be offered a job. I was really amazing / amazed when I was offered it.
7. The kitchen hadn’t been cleaned for ages. It was really disgusting / disgusted.
8. Do you easily get embarrassing / embarrassed?
9. Everyone was surprised / surprising that he passed the examination.
10. He is always tired / tiring when he gets home from work.
Exercise 40
Gradable adjectives: adjectives like ‘good’, ‘small’ or ‘pleasant’ can go with adverbs like ‘very’, ‘fairly’ and ‘rather’. For example: very good; fairly small; rather pleasant. You cannot use adverbs like ‘absolutely’ and ‘totally’ with these adjectives.
Absolute adjectives: strong adjectives like ‘incredible’ can go with adverbs like ‘absolutely’ and ‘totally’. For example: absolutely perfect; totally unique. When Mike did his first jump, he shouted, ”This is absolutely incredible!”
Put the given adjectives under these two headings: very or absolutely.
For example:
Very – angry; absolutely – furious.
Adjectives:
Angry, excited, exhausted, incredible, furious, tired, thrilled, awful, good, hilarious, funny, strange, bad, brilliant.
Exercise 41
Translate into English.
i. Боюся, ця квартира не така зручна, як ваша.
ii. Вона не настільки гарна, як її сестра.
iii. Цей його роман так само популярний як і попередній.
iv. У кімнаті так само спекотно, як і на вулиці.
v. Зараз у нього не така висока температура, як уранці.
vi. У нас не такий великий будинок, як у вас, але він так само затишний.
vii. Цей килим такий же строкатий, як і наш.
viii. Хоча це плаття не таке дороге, як моє, воно чудово носиться.
ix. Ваш собака так само розпещений, як і ваша дитина.
x. Ця вправа не така довга, як та, що ми щойно зробили.
xi. Чому ви думаєте, що в нас так само мало грошей, як і в нього?
xii. Його думка так само важлива для нас. Як і ваша.
xiii. Я не впевнений, що в мене такий самий сучасний комп’ютер, як у вас.
xiv. Доміно не така стародавня гра, як шахи.
xv. Ця лекція не видається мені такою нудної, як попередня.
Exercise 42
Translate into English.
1. Ваша машина новіша за мою? – Ні, вона старіша. Це найстаріша машина у місті.
2. Цей телевізор дорожчий за той? – Ні, не дорожчий. Він дешевший. Власне, це найдешевший телевізор у цьому магазині.
3. Цього року весна холодніше, ніж минулого? – Ні, вона тепліша. Можливо, це найтепліша весна яку я пам’ятаю.
4. Цей ресторан більш гомінкий ніж той. Давайте підемо у спокійніше місце.
5. Місто розташоване далі від нашої ферми, а село – ближче.
6. Весна більш хмарна, а літо більш сонячне цього року. – Так, і зима морозніша, а осінь більш дощова.
7. Що може бути кращим за чашку духмяного чаю? – Тільки чашка ароматної кави.
8. мені здається, що це найхолодніша весна за останні десять років.
9. Чим простіша задача, тим менше часу потрібно для її вирішення.
10. Цього року ми вивчаємо менше дисциплін, ніж у минулому, але складаємо більше іспитів.
11. І це ти називаєш найщасливішим і найбезтурботнішим часом у твоєму житті?
12. Наша екскурсія виявилася набагато веселішою, ніж я очікував.
13. Не може бути, що ти стомився більше, ніж я.
14. Навіть якщо у мене менше друзів, ніж у тебе, вони надійніші та відданіші мені.
15. Думаю, ти будеш почувати себе зручніше у спортивному костюмі.
16. Най2щастливіша та дитина, яку розуміють її батьки.
17. Ситуація набагато серйозніша, ніж ти можеш собі уявити.
18. Мені б хотілося, щоб ти досяг набагато кращих успіхів, ніж я.
19. Нема у світі нічого гіршого, ніж зрада.
20. Ніхто не буде сперечатися, що найзручніший вид транспорту – це метро.
MODAL VERBS
Modal verbs (can/could, may/might, must, need, shall/should, ought to, will/would, be to, have to) do not name any actions made by a person, but denote the person’s attitude towards the surrounding world. They are used with great frequency and with the wide range of meanings. They express such ideas as willingness and ability, permission and refusal, obligation and prohibition, necessity, promise and intention; almost all modal verbs can express degrees of certainty, probability, or possibility.
They have certain characteristics in common:
1. They need no auxiliaries to form questions and negations;
2. The verbs can, may, shall, will have two tense forms of the indicative mood – the present and the past.
| The present tense | The past tense |
| can | could |
| may | might |
| shall | should |
| will | would |
3. The forms could, might, should, would instead of denoting a past action may denote an unreal action and in this case they have no meaning of a past action; they are used with the indefinite infinitive when we speak of the present or the future, and with the perfect infinitive when we speak about the past.
4. The verbs must and need have only one form of the indicative mood. They are used with the indefinite infinitive when we speak of the present or the future, and with the perfect infinitive when we speak about the past.
5. The modal verb ought has only one form. The form of the infinitive after the verb ought shows whether we are speaking of the present-future or of the past.
6. Modal verbs are always used in combination with the infinitive.
Unlike all other verbs, modal verbs do not denote an action but are used to express abstract modal meanings of possibility, necessity, volition, etc. Sometimes they are also used to express different emotions such as doubt, surprise, reproach, etc.
As far as their function in the sentence is concerned, modal verbs are structural. Due to the fact that they express modal relations, they are never used as independent parts of a sentence. They are always used in combination with the infinitive making up part of the compound modal predicate.
The infinitive associated with a modal verb may be used in any form, i.e. non-perfect or perfect, non-continuous or continuous, active or passive.
CAN / COULD
The verb “can” has two forms: “can” for the Present Tense and “could” for the Past Tense; the expression “be able to” which has the same meaning can be used to supply the missing forms of the verb “can”. (e.g. I had not been able to imagine how weakened she was.)
The verb “can” is used to express:
| Meaning | Forms of the modal verb | Other ways to express the same meaning | Sentence patterns |
| Mental, physical and circumstantial ability (all types of sentences) | Can / can’t, could / couldn’t | To be able to; to know how to do something; to have the ability to do something | Can you lift this heavy chair? I couldn’t swim quite well at the age of 8. He can see nothing without his glasses. |
| Permission (in questions and statements) | Can – present tense; could – in reported speech | To permit; to be allowed | Can we keep it? You can go now. |
| Request (in questions) | Can; could (more polite) | To permit; to be allowed | Could you do it for me? |
| Prohibition (negative sentences) | Can’t | Not to permit; not to be allowed | You can’t cross the street here. |
| Unreality (all types of sentences) | Could do – present; could have done – past | Would be able to do something; would have been able to do something | But for this I could do it quite easily now.I could have got here earlier if I had known that you were waiting for me. |
| Astonishment, strong doubt about the present, about the past (in questions) | Can somebody do? Could somebody do? Can / could somebody have done? | Is it possible that..? Do you believe that ..? | Can he be her husband? He is twice as old as she is.Can he have made it? |
| Incredulity, improbability about the present (in negative sentences) | Somebody can’t do … somebody couldn’t do… | It’s hardly possible that; I refuse to believe that … | She can’t say such words. |
| Improbability about the past ( in negative sentences) | Somebody can’t have done; somebody couldn’t have done | I don’t believe that … It is impossible that… It’s incredible that … I don’t think it’s possible that … | He couldn’t have made such a mistake. |
| The weakest probability | Can / could | It’s possible; Perhaps; By chance | You could be right, I’m not sure. |
| Emotional colouring (in special questions) | Can / could | — | What can you know of such things? What can they be speaking about? How can you have made such a mistake? |
Note: to distinguish between a question about somebody’s ability to do something and the expression of strong doubt we use the Indefinite infinitive in the first case and the Continuous infinitive in the second (with the exception of the verbs to be, to know, to love, to hate and others).
Compare: Can he write poetry?
Can he be writing poetry?
Exercises
Exercise 1
Open the brackets using the correct form of the infinitive. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
1. I wonder who broke the cup; it can’t (to be) the cat for she was out all day.
2. Is it your dog running in the garden? - No, it can’t (to be) my dog. My dog is at home.
3. He couldn’t (to catch) the 9.20 train because he didn’t leave home till 9.25.
4. She can’t (to read) four hours running. She has read only two pages.
5. He says he saw you at the theatre yesterday. – He couldn’t (to see) me. I wasn’t there.
6. He returned home with a tiger cub. His wife can’t (to be) very pleased about that.
7. The door was open. – It couldn’t (to be) open. I had locked it myself and the key was in my pocket.
8. I saw Ann in the library yesterday. – You couldn’t (to see) her, she is still abroad.
9. The lecturer is a tall thin man with white hair. – Then it can’t (to be) Dr. Smith because he is short and fat.
10. We went sailing on a lake in a park. I think it was the Round Pond. – It couldn’t (to be) the Round Pond, there are only toy boats there.
11. I suppose it is Charles who always leaves the kitchen in such a mess. – No, it can’t (to be) Charles. He never has a meal in.
12. We went to a restaurant and had a very good dinner for 75p. – You couldn’t (to have) a very good dinner if you only paid 75p.
Exercise 2
Analyze the form could in the following sentences. State whether it denotes the past or the unreality of the action. Translate the combinations of could with the infinitive.
1. He could reel off line after line of poetry when he was a child.
2. He told us that the place could be reached by car.
3. I could see through the window that the room was empty.
4. I could tell you many things if you would only care to listen.
5. She’s as tall as you are. She could wear your things.
6. You simply did not care. Why. You could have lent him the money.
7. The game was as good as lost. Nothing could have saved “The Ramblers”.
8. By the evening I had gone through the pile of papers. It was no use. I could not find any mention of the case.
9. Don’t try to find excuses for her. She could at least offer to help you put the house to rights after the party. But she won’t, not she.
10. The last copy was sold. I could have cried.
11. We had to tell him everything. We could not have managed without his help.
12. So you walked the whole way, carrying that heavy suitcase. Why couldn’t you ask somebody for a lift?
Exercise 3
In the following sentences could denotes unreality. Refer the situation to the past by changing the form of the infinitive.
Model: Could you do anything for her? (now)
Could you have done anything for her? (then)
1. Only an immediate operation could save her now.
2. I could get there in less than two hours in my car.
3. I couldn’t make a cake without eggs anyway.
4. Could you translate this without a dictionary?
5. How could you get in touch with her? You don’t know where she is.
6. I could refuse her nothing.
7. Don’t do that. A better way out could be found.
8. Of course I could ask Father to post it for me.
9. Jackie could stay with Edna. She would love to have him.
10. You could take it to the cleaner’s on the way to town and I’d get it back in time for the party.
Exercise 4
Form requests, ask for permission to do something, give permission to do something, express prohibition using the following word-combinations:
1. to help somebody with his work;
2. to do something directly one returns;
3. to take somebody’s picture;
4. to have cream with one’s tea;
5. to drop in at a shop for some face-cream.
Model: to discuss the subject with one’s friends
1. request – Can (could) you discuss the subject with your friends?
2. asking for permission – Can (could) I discuss the subject with my friends?
3. permission – You can discuss the subject with your friends.
4. prohibition – You can’t discuss the subject with your friends.
Exercise 5
Express strong and very strong doubt about the statements made in the following sentences.
Model: 1. –She did not trust him from the start.
a. Can she have mistrusted him …
b. She can’t have mistrusted him …
2. – She didn’t explain to me how to do it.
- Can she have failed to explain to him …
- She can’t have failed to explain to him …
1. She did not leave her address.
2. She doesn’t believe his story.
3. She didn’t recognize him when they met on the platform.
4. They didn’t deliver the mail in time.
5. Mother didn’t understand my directions.
6. You didn’t buy the butter.
Exercise 6
Study the following chart. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
Can in the meaning of ability, Can in the meaning of supposition with
capability, permission, prohibition. implied surprise, disbelief, doubt.
I can swim very well. 1. It can’t be true.
He can speak French. 2. He can’t have escaped by this window because it
is barred.
Can I borrow your bicycle? 3. Could he have learned Chinese in a
You can’t keep this book, month’s time?
it doesn’t belong to you. 4. He said that he watered the plants every day.
He could have watered them. If he had
they wouldn’t have died,
Practise the following according to the model.
Model: A: He says he saw Mary at the dance.
B: He couldn’t have seen her. She wasn’t there.
He says he …
1. had an argument with Tom at the party ( Tom wasn’t there ).
2. came up by the lift. (The lift wasn’t working).
3. carried it himself. (It weighs a ton).
4. got sunburn in Hyde Park in November. (The sun isn’t strong enough).
5. swam across the Irish sea. (It is too wide).
6. heard your clock strike. (My clock doesn’t strike).
7. went there by train. (The railway line is closed).
Exercise 7
Choose the correct form of the verb.
1. Why did you walk all the way from the station? You could phone / could have phoned for a lift.
2. I loved staying with my grandparents when I was a child. They let me read all the books in the house and told me I could / was able to go to bed as late as I wanted.
3. The carpet was priced at $500, but I could / was able to get a discount because of this little mark in the corner.
4. I couldn’t have found / haven’t been able to find my diary for days. It’s terribly inconvenient.
5. As soon as she opened the door I could / was able to see from her face that something terrible had happened.
6. I’ve no idea where my brother is now. He can / could be at the North Pole for all I know.
7. It’s difficult to understand how explorers survive the conditions they encounter in the Antarctic. I’m sure I can’t / couldn’t.
8. Why did I listen to you? I can be / could have been at home by now instead of sitting here in the cold.
9. The day started off musty, but by the time we had reached the mountain the sun had appeared and we could / were able to climb it quite quickly.
Exercise 8
Express strong doubt about the statements made in the following negative sentences. Translate them into Ukrainian.
Model:
He didn’t notice you.
1. Can (could) he have failed to notice you?
2. He can’t (couldn’t) have failed to notice you.
He doesn’t like it here.
1. Can (could) he dislike it here?
2. He can’t (couldn’t) dislike it here.
We didn’t see him do it.
1. Can (could) nobody have seen him do it?
2. Nobody can (could) have seen him do it.
1. You didn’t understand me.
2. You didn’t like the play.
3. They do not trust him.
4. They didn’t find him there.
5. People don’t want to go there.
6. She didn’t notice the mistake.
7. They didn’t receive the telegram in time.
8. They don’t realize the full significance of the event.
9. He did not see you.
10. She did not lose sight of them in the crowd.
Exercise 9
Paraphrase the following sentences using can / couldin the required meaning.
1. You are allowed to take up to 20 kilograms without paying extra when travelling by air.
2. I’m convinced that it is possible for all peoples in the world to live in peace and friendship.
3. Do you know how to drive a car?
4. Is it possible that we have been asleep for more than 3 hours?
5. The teacher said that he allowed the children to go home.
6. The doctor said that the patient was not permitted to leave the hospital as he needed a longer course of medical treatment.
7. Will you be so kind as to tell me the way to the nearest post-office?
8. Would she be able to become a skilled engineer?
9. I wonder how she managed to learn to speak so many foreign languages.
10. It’s hardly like that she has been completely cured.
11. It’s unbelievable that she has failed to get in touch with him.
12. I’m so glad you were able to get here in time and help the man.
13. Is it possible to have my prescription made up here? – No, we aren’t open yet.
Exercise 10
a) Answer these questions about personal qualities:
Can you always tell people what you really think?
Can you relax with people you don’t know/
Can you usually get what you want?
Can you keep calm in stressful situations?
Can you keep your temper under control?
Can you laugh at yourself?
Can you always see both sides of an argument?
Can you ignore criticism easily?
Can you express your feeling easily?
b) Work in pairs. Tell each other what you can or can’t do. Are you similar or different? Expand your answers:
I can’t always tell people what I think. Can you? No, I can’t. …
c) Match the descriptions in a) with compound adjectives from the list below. There may be more than one possibility:
Outspoken
Good-humoured
Easy-going
Strong-willed
Well-behaved
Short-sighted
Short-tempered
Thick-skinned
Outgoing
Soft-hearted
Hard-working
Left-handed
Middle-aged
Fair-minded
Cool-headed
Self-assured
Old-fashioned
World-famous
d) Make up sentences that describe each compound adjective:
Someone who can always tell people what they really think is outspoken.
Exercise 11
Complete the sentences with the correct form of can, could or be able to.
Model: He’s very fit for his age. He ___ (run) very fast. – He can run very fast.
I’d like ___ (work) with you one day. – I’d like to be able to work with you one day.
1. He ___ (not climb) up to the top; he was too scared.
2. If they hadn’t phoned for an ambulance, he ___ (die).
3. I love ___ (spend) all morning in bed at the weekends.
4. We ___ (go) to that concert tomorrow if the tickets haven’t been sold out.
5. I think you should go in the spring; it ___ (be) very crowded there in the summer.
6. I ___ (not understand) what he says; he speaks too quickly.
7. Do you know where Nick’s glasses are? He ___ (not see) very much without them.
8. ___ (speak) another language fluently is a great advantage when you are looking for a job.
9. Jonathan ___ (not say) anything until he was about three years old.
10. We ___ (not phone her up) because her phone had broken, but fortunately we ___ (get) a message to her.
11. Amy’s exam results weren’t very good. She ___ (do) better.
12. I ___ (not sleep) very well for the last four nights. It’s been too hot.
13. She tried to think of other things but she ___ (not put) that awful memory out of her mind.
14. You should ___ (go out) when you want to.
15. ___ you (come) to the party on Saturday.
16. I ___ (ride) this bike soon: I just need more time to practise.
17. He doesn’t do very much when he’s here. He ___ (be) more helpful.
18. I ___ (play) tennis really well a few years ago, but not any more.
Exercise 12
Complete the following sentences using could or was / were able to.
1. He asked to lend him $ 10. I hadn’t got $ 10, but _____ lend him $5, and he was grateful.
2. The fishing boat sank, but fortunately the fisherman _____ swim to the shore.
3. The woman ____ describe the pickpocket to the police; she told them he was a thin little man, wearing a dirty raincoat.
4. It was a fine day yesterday, so we _____ have a picnic, and we enjoyed it very much.
5. He suddenly felt ill, but he _____ finish his speech, although at the end he could hardly stand.
6. He spoke very little French when he left school, but he _____ understand the language.
7. I got to the station at 9.50 a.m. and ____ catch the 9.55 a.m. train. I was very pleased I didn’t have to wait for the next train.
8. The sick man has a restless night, but he ____ sleep for an hour or two.
9. She ____ visit her friend every morning before she got married if she wanted to, but now she can’t; she has too much to do in the house.
10. The town was full of visitors, and we didn’t know where we would spend the night, but at last we _____ find two vacant rooms in a small hotel.
11. Before his illness, he ____ work fourteen hours a day if he had to.
12. I was a long way from the stage. I _____ see all right but I ____ not hear very well.
13. I knew the town so I _____ advise him where to go.
14. When the garage had repaired our car we _____ continue our journey.
15. When I arrived everyone was asleep. Fortunately I _____ wake my sister and she let me in.
Exercise 13
In the Future Indefinite Tense be able to has the following forms: shall/will be able to; shall not / will not be able to (shan’t / won’t be able to). Fill in the spaces with these forms.
1. When they buy a car, they ____ be able to visit their friends more often.
2. I’m sorry, but I ____ come to your birthday party next week.
3. I saw a terrible bus accident in London a year ago. I _____ never ____ forget it.
4. It’s very cold, and the old man _____ go out until the weather gets warmer.
5. Why do you sit at the back of the class if you can’t hear well? You ____ hear better if you sit in the front.
6. Do you think you _____ support yourself when you are twenty-one?
7. I’m too busy to have a holiday this year, but I hope I _____ have a long holiday next year.
8. The train leaves at five o’clock tomorrow morning. We _____ catch it if we don’t get up early.
9. He was working very hard before he fell ill. He ____ work so hard when he comes out of hospital.
10. Perhaps one day we _____ travel to the moon.
11. The little girl is still ill, but she’s getting better. The doctor hopes she _____ go back to school after the summer holidays.
12. This is a very difficult problem. I’m afraid you _____ solve it without help.
13. The doctor is very busy; he _____ see any more patients today.
14. He _____ spend more time with his grandchildren when she retires the year after next.
15. Mr. Brown is learning Ukrainian, but he doesn’t think he ___ ever ____ speak the language well.
16. Jack has hurt his knee, and he ____ play football next Saturday.
Exercise 14
Fill in the blanks with can or be able in different tenses.
a. When I’ve passed my driving test I ____ hire a car from our local garage.
b. When the fog lifts we ____ see where we are.
c. You’ve put too much in your rucksack, you never ___ carry all that.
d. When I was a child I ____ (not) understand the adults, and now that I’m an adult I ____ (not) children.
e. When you have taken your degree you ____ put letters after your name.
f. When I first went to Spain I ____ read Spanish but I ____ (not) speak it.
g. He was very strong; he ____ ski all day and dance all night.
h. The car plunged into the river. The driver ____ get out but the passengers were drowned.
i. We ____ borrow umbrellas; so we didn’t get wet.
j. I had no key so I ____ lock the door.
k. The swimmer was very tired but he ____ reach the shore before he collapsed.
l. The police were suspicious at first but I ____ convince them that we were innocent.
m. She made the wall very high so that the boys ____ (not) climb over it.
n. They took his passport so that he ____ (not) leave the country.
o. They used to chain valuable books to library desks so that people ____ (not) take them away.
p. If you had had the right tools ____ you have repaired the engine?
Exercise 15
Find Ukrainian equivalents of the following proverbs. Use them in the situations of your own.
a. What is done, cannot be undone.
b. Love cannot be forced.
c. Change of habit cannot alter nature.
d. Can leopard change its spots?
e. Old friends cannot be sacrificed for new ones.
f. You can take a horse to the water, but you cannot make him drink.
g. Success in the ladder that cannot be climbed with your hands in the pocket.
h. Never put off till tomorrow what you can do today.
i. A man can do no more than he can.
j. What can’t be cured must be endured.
MAY / MIGHT
The verb “may” has two forms: “may” for the Present Tense and “might” for the Past Tense. The expressions “to be allowed” and “to be permitted”, which have the same meaning, can be used to supply the missing forms of the verb “may” (e.g. You are to stay in bed until you are allowed to get up.)
The verb “may” is used to express:
| Meaning | Forms of the modal verb | Other ways to express the same meaning | Sentence patterns |
| Absence of obstacles to the action (in statements) | May – the present tense; might – the past tense | _ | Children may borrow books from the library. |
| Polite or formal permission (in questions mostly) | May – the present tense; might – the past tense | To be allowed; to be permitted | - May I come in? |
| Request (in questions) | May – the present tense; might – the past tense; (might is more polite form) | _ | May I see him today? He asked me if he might rest for an hour. Might I spend the weekend with you? |
| Polite or formal prohibition (in negative sentences) | May not | _ | You may not smoke in the room. |
| Reproach (in statements); doubt | Might do; might have done (might expresses greater doubt, it is practically never used when speaking about the past) | _ | You might just as well come in time. You might have asked me at first. Let’s wait just a little longer, she might come after all. |
| Weak probability possibility about the present, future and past (in statements) | May do / might do – future & present; may have done / might have done - past | Perhaps, maybe, possibly | She looks pale; she may be ill. He might have already come. It may rain tomorrow. |
Note: when we express doubt about an action in the present we mostly use the Continuous infinitive after the verb may (with the exception of such verbs as: to love, to hate, to know, to understand)
e.g. She may be wearing her hair long now.
This is probably done to avoid confusion with the pattern of doubt about the future action.
Compare: They may be living in the country. (now)
They may live at the country. (at some future time)
Exercises
Exercise 1
Analyze the form of the modal verb may / might. Say in which meaning it is used. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
1. Children may borrow books from the library.
2. He said he might get to work by bus.
3. Let’s meet at 5 if the time is convenient to everybody. We may get there on foot.
4. I have got two English novels in the original. So you may take one of them.
5. Mother said you might take some apples.
6. - May I smoke, doctor? – No, you may not. You’d better stop doing it. It may ruin your health.
7. Mother, may I have a glass of light beer?
8. May I see him in the hospital on Tuesday?
9. He asked me if he might rest for an hour.
10. May I spend the week-end with you?
11. Jim, you may not have a swim today, it’s rather chilly.
12. You might remember – people are sleeping upstairs.
13. You might have asked me if I had an objection.
14. You might have come half an hour ago.
15. The child is very weak. You might be more attentive to him.
16. If he had arrived an hour earlier, he might have had a good night’s rest.
17. We may have been married.
18. He may have written the letter, but the signature is certainly not his.
19. He told the doctor he might have been running a high temperature for some days.
Exercise 2
Insert the correct form of the modal verb may / might.
a. It ____ rain, you’d better take a coat.
b. He said that it ____ rain.
c. We ____ as well stay here till the weather improves.
d. ____ I borrow your umbrella?
e. Candidates ____ (not) bring textbooks into the examination room.
f. I ____ never see you again.
g. He ____ be on the next train, we ____ as well wait.
h. If we got there early we ____ get a good seat.
i. The police ____ ask a driver to take a breath test.
j. You ought to buy now; prices ____ go up.
k. I’ll wait a week so that he ____ have time to think it over.
l. He isn’t going to eat it; I ____ as well give it to the dog.
m. We’d better be early; there ____ be a crowd.
n. Nobody knows how people first came to these islands. They ____ have sailed from South America on rafts.
o. He said that we ____ use his office whenever we liked.
p. I don’t think I’ll succeed but I ____ as well try.
q. If we can give him blood transfusion we ____ be able to save his life.
r. Two parallel white lines in the middle of the road mean that you ____ (not) overtake.
s. If I bought a lottery ticket I ____ win $1000.
t. He has refused, but he ____ change his mind if you asked him again.
Exercise 3
Paraphrase the following sentences so as to use the modal verb may / might.
Model: Maybe he’ll get a new job. - He might get a new job. / He may get a new job.
Do you think I could have one of these cakes? – May I have one of these cakes?
a) Visitors are not allowed to stay in the hospital after 10 p.m.
b) Do you think I could have one of these sandwiches?
c) He has had a busy day and perhaps he is tired now.
d) Mum says that she allows me to go on a package tour with my friends to the Swiss Alps.
e) I think the car is in the station car park.
f) Is it alright if I use your phone?
g) Guests are allowed to wear casual dress.
h) Perhaps, she’ll move to London.
i) There’s a possibility that the show will be cancelled.
j) I think that Andrew will collect the money.
k) It’s very cold here. You’re shivering all over. You are permitted to put on Mary’s coat.
l) Maybe, Peter won’t come to the cinema tomorrow.
m) Possibly, it’ll rain this afternoon.
Exercise 4
Study the following chart. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
May in the meaning of permission, May in the meaning of uncertain
request, very sharp prohibition. supposition, reproach.
| May I come and see you this evening? Of course you may. You may come at any time. Candidates may not bring textbooks into the examination room. | It may rain today, or it may be fine. I don’t know. Somebody phoned at lunch time but I couldn’t catch the name. It may have been my brother. You might tell me! I think I have the right to know. We’ve run out of petrol! I’m not surprised. I noticed that the tank was nearly empty when we left home. You might have told me! We could have got petrol at the last village. |
Open the brackets, using the correct form of the infinitive. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
1. I saw them in the street but they didn’t stop to speak to me. They may (to be) in a hurry.
2. My name is not written in this book, but it may (to be) mine.
3. People were waiting but the bus didn’t stop. It may (to be) full.
4. I know she was in because I heard her radio but she didn’t open the door. She may not (to hear) the bell.
5. I can’t think why they didn’t try to help him. They may not (to realize) that he was drowning.
6. He might (to thank) us. (We are offended that he didn’t )
7. He may (to be) on the next train. Let’s wait.
8. Nobody knows how people first came to these islands. They may (to sail) from South America on rafts.
9. You might (to be) right but I don’t think you are.
10. Tom: What’s happened to Jack? We said 7.30 and now it’s 8.00 and there’s no sign of him. Ann: He may (to forget) that we invited him. He is rather forgetful. Tom: Or he may (to get) lost. He hasn’t been to this house before.
11. If you said that, he might (to be) very offended.
12. I’ve lost one of my gloves. – The puppy might (to take) it. I saw him running by just now with something in his mouth. It might (to be) your glove.
13. Ann: Why didn’t you wait for me yesterday? Tom: I waited five minutes. Ann: You might (to wait) longer.
14. It may (to rain), take a coat.
15. He said that it might (to rain).
16. I wonder how the fire started. – Oh, someone might (to drop) a lighted cigarette. Or it might (to be) an electrical fault.
17. I wonder why they didn’t go. The weather may (to be) too bad.
Exercise 5
Express ironical requests based on the following sentences. Use the perfect infinitive to refer the situation to the past and in this way express reproach.
Model: You do not remember your child’s birthday. – You might remember your child’s birthday!
You didn’t switch off the lights before leaving. – You might have switched off the lights before leaving.
1. You do not wear your new suit to the office.
2. You didn’t sew the buttons on, Alice.
3. You didn’t even notice how well she played. You do not pay enough attention to your child.
4. Do come and help me choose it.
5. You didn’t try hard enough.
6. You didn’t get up a little earlier and help me to clean up after the party.
7. You never let me know when something like this happens.
8. You didn’t give a detailed account.
9. You didn’t meet her at the station.
Exercise 6
Fill the spaces by inserting can / could or may / might (or the negative form).
1. Students ______ bring textbooks into the examination room.
2. _______ you stand on your head? – I ______ when I was at school but I _____ now.
3. ______ I smoke here? – No, you _____. Smoking is not allowed.
4. ______ you type?- Yes, I _______ type but I _____ do shorthand.
5. _______ I come in? – Please do.
6. I ______ remember the address. - ____ you even remember the street?
7. He _____ answer the teacher’s questions yesterday, but he _____ answer the same questions today.
8. _____ I come and see you this evening? – Of course you _______ .
9. When I first went to Spain I _______ read Spanish but I ______ speak it.
10. He said that we _____ use his flat whenever we liked.
11. There was a lot of noise in the street last night, and I ______ sleep.
12. _____ I borrow your umbrella?
13. I _____ walk ten miles a day when I was a young man, but now I _______ .
14. It’s very cold. _____ I shut the windows?
Exercise 7
Fill in the blanks with may, might, can, could. Give two variants where possible.
A. I _______ be away from home tomorrow.
B. He _______ have been hurt.
C. It _____ or ______ not be true.
D. It was so dark we _____ see nothing.
E. _______ you lend me a shilling?
F. _______ you hear what he is saying?
G. You ______ walk miles in this district without seeing a house.
H. _______ this be true?
I. _______ we go to the pictures after we wash up?
J. Mother says I _____ not go out.
K. Sorry, sir. You ____ smoke in here.
L. It ____ be so far as all that.
M. ________ I have some more bread?
N. You _____ ask him to be chairman at the meeting. He’ll be so pleased.
O. The letters ______ have been written in this very house.
P. She _____ have consulted me before acting.
Q. What _____ have happened to prevent their coming?
R. I wonder what he _____ say to this.
S. You ______ pay less attention to other people’s affairs and more to your own.
T. Nothing _____ make me give up this idea.
Exercise 8
Express doubt about the statements made in the following sentences. Make the doubt stronger by using more and more emphatic expressions:
Model: They spent part of the summer here. - They may have spent…
- They might have spent…
- Can they have spent…?
- They can’t have spent…
1. In the end Joe took the job.
2. She is very particular about such things.
3. He is lying in wait for you downstairs.
4. They think much of her.
5. Someone broke that lock.
6. He sent her some flowers.
7. He tells her all that happens at the office.
8. He helps the child with his lessons.
Exercise 9
Ask for permission to do something, give permission to do something, prohibit an action, express a request, a reproach using the following word-combinations.
1. to show smb how to do smth;
2. to explain to smb how smth happened;
3. to help smb do smth;
4. to look after the children for smb;
5. to do the shopping;
6. to take the dog for his run;
7. to exchange the books at the library;
8. to bring home some ice-cream.
Model: to cut a few sandwiches for Tim’s lunch
1. May (can) I cut a few sandwiches for Tim’s lunch?
2. You may (can) cut a few sandwiches for Tim’s lunch.
3. You may (can) not cut sandwiches for Tim’s lunch.
4. You might cut a few sandwiches for Tim’s lunch.
5. You might have cut a few sandwiches for Tim’s lunch.
Exercise 10
a) Fill in the correct word from the following: allow / permit, permission, may, might, can, could. Indicate where two words are possible.
Ben wanted to ask his teacher for ____ to leave school early on Friday afternoon, but he didn’t really expect that she would ____ him to do so. He explained about some dental appointment which he could possibly miss, but somehow, she didn’t seem to believe him. “Miss Jones, ____ I leave school at 3.30 on Friday, please? You see, I have this dental appointment and …” Miss Jones replied that he ____ go ten minutes earlier, but not half an hour earlier! She knew that if she ____ Ben go earlier, the other pupils would expect to be ____ to leave earlier, too, and she couldn’t possibly _____ this become a real occurrence! “I’m sorry, Ben, but I really can’t _____ you to go at 3.30. However, you ____ go at ten minutes to four, just this once, and I’ll give you some extra homework to do in the dentist’s waiting-room!”
b) Work in pairs. Role-play the conversation between Ben and Miss Jones.
Exercise 11
Translate into English using modal verbs can and may. Give variants where possible.
1. Вона вже мала бути на роботі.
2. Не може бути, щоб вона вже приїхала.
3. Невже вона все це відповіла?
4. Чи можу я користуватися словником?
5. Можете піти та подивитися самі.
6. Чи могли б ви сказати, коли він прийде?
7. Він може завітати сюди по дорозі додому.
8. Ви могли б приходити вчасно.
9. Я не міг прийти вчасно, мій потяг спізнився.
10. Ви б принесли мені кави.
11. Хто б це міг завітати до нас, коли нас не було вдома?
12. Ти могла б помити посуд після обіду, а не розмовляти по телефону з друзями.
13. Тобі вже час самому вміти робити такі речі.
14. Не слід заходити до магазину з собакою, залиш її біля входу.
Exercise 12
Translate the sentences into English making use of the modal verbs can / could, may / might and their negative forms.
1. Я не можу займатися довго одним і тим самим.
2. Я можу зайнятися цим тільки опівдні.
3. Я можу пошукати твій журнал, якщо ти бажаєш.
4. Зараз ми можемо легко зв’язатися з будь-якою країною світу.
5. Ви не могли б мені показати он ту сукню?
6. Ми могли б разом сходити в кіно.
7. Людина не може жити без води.
8. Вибачте, можна я скористаюся вашим телефоном?
9. Мамо, можна я принесу додому щеня?
10. Я впевнена, ти можеш вирішити це питання сам.
11. Ти що, не чуєш мене?
12. Що я можу зробити, щоб віддячити вам?
13. Піди подивися, чим займаються діти, я їх не чую.
14. Не можна побачити бактерії без мікроскопу.
15. Ти міг би зачинити вікно, я змерзла.
16. Ми могли б відкласти нашу поїздку на кілька днів.
17. Коли б ми сьогодні одержали від нього телеграму, я завтра ж могла б купити квитки.
18. Можна йому приєднатися до нас за вечерею?
19. Я просто не в змозі сьогодні працювати.
20. Я могла б зайти за тобою завтра вранці.
21. Боюсь, я не можу сказати тобі нічого втішного.
22. Фотографія не може передати її чарівність.
23. Можна я не буду прибирати сьогодні?
24. Ти міг би приділяти більше часу своїм заняттям музикою.
25. Головний інженер каже, що ви можете починати іспити без нього.
26. Коли б завтра захворів наш викладач, ми змогли б попасти на концерт.
27. Я просто не можу повірити, що він тобі так відповів.
28. Не вміючи плавати, я ніколи не ходжу на річку сам.
29. Не квап мене. Я чудово можу закінчити цей переклад завтра.
30. Чи можу я відкрити ще один рахунок у вашому банку?
MUST, HAVE TO, BE TO
The verb “must” has only one form.
“To have to” and the expression “to be obliged to”, which have the same meaning, can be used to supply the missing tense forms of the verb “must”.
“To be to”+Infinitive is a modal expression; some of its meanings are close to those of modal verbs and expressions denoting obligation. This modal expression can be used in two tenses – the Present Simple and the Past Simple (was/were). All these modals can be used in:
| Meaning | Forms of the modal verb | Some other ways of expressing the same meaning | Sentence patterns |
| Obligation, real necessity with no freedom of choice or from the speaker’s point of view (in statements and questions) | Must – in present time contexts; had to do – in the past; smb’ll have to do – in the future | It’s necessary for smb to do smth; | What must he do to keep fit? I must go there tonight. If you have a new heart attack you must be taken to hospital. I had to go there yesterday. I’ll have to go there tomorrow. |
| Obligation or necessity arising out of circumstances or based on a law or rule, or on the authority of another person (in questions and statements) | Have to do; had to do; smb’ll have to do | To be obliged | If you don’t take care of yourself, you’ll have to consult a doctor. It’s raining, I have to take an umbrella. |
| Obligation arising out of a plan or an arrangement (in statements and question) | Am to do; is to do; are to do; was (were) to do | To plan; to make a plan; to arrange; to decide | When are you to go there? I was to meet her at the station. |
| Order - admonition | Must do; mustn’t do | _ | You mustn’t miss the film, it’s worth while seeing it. You must come and see my new flat. |
| Strict order (in statements) | Am to do; is to do; are to do; was (were) to do | _ | You are to take a spoonful of this after each meal. |
| Prohibition (in negatives) | Mustn’t do | To be forbidden | You mustn’t stay away from classes without a good reason. |
| Strict prohibition | Am not to; is not to; are not to; was (were) not to | _ | You are not to leave this room. |
| Smth thought of as unavoidable (in statements and negatives) | Am to do; is to do; are to do; was (were) to do | _ | I still hoped to get a letter from her, but it wasn’t to be. |
| Absence of necessity or obligation | Don’t (doesn’t) have to…; didn’t have to …; haven’t (hasn’t) got to…; won’t have to … | _ | You don’t have to go to England if you want to learn English. |
| Supposition implying assurance and strong probability, the most logical interpretation of a situation (though we do not have all the facts) | Must do; must be doing; must have done; must have been doing | Probably; evidently; surely; no doubt; undoubtedly; it’s clear that…; in all probability | She must be waiting for us there. He must have done it. |
Note:
a. There is a slight difference between the modal verb must and its equivalent be to expressing obligation: be to denotes an expected action, an action which is necessary to do because somebody expects it to be done;
b. The modal verb must expressing prohibition and order is retained in indirect speech: He said I must come and see his new car.
c. Be to is used to make prohibitions and orders stricter.
d. When we express supposition about the action in the present we mostly use the Continuous infinitive after must (with the exception of such verbs as to be, to love, to hate, to know, etc.) not to confuse the meanings of obligation, necessity and supposition.
Exercises
Exercise 1
Fill the spaces in the following sentences by inserting must or the present, past or future form of have to.
1. She ____ leave home at eight every morning at present.
2. Notice in a particular gallery: Cameras, sticks and umbrellas ____ be left at the desk.
3. He sees very badly; he ____ wear glasses all the time.
4. You ____ read this book. It’s really excellent.
5. She felt ill and ____ leave early.
6. You ______ come to work in time.
7. He _____ cook his own meals, his wife is away.
8. The buses were all full; I ____ get a taxi.
9. Tell her that she ______ be here by six. I insist on it.
10. I got lost and _____ ask the policeman the way.
Exercise 2
Fill in the blanks with must or have to.
1. The dress is much too short for her, you _____ let it out.
2. We ____ wait for forty minutes because we missed the six fifteen.
3. I _____ stay in today. I _____ finish the composition.
4. These mushrooms _____ be boiled first.
5. She _____ get up very early to do the shopping.
6. If we don’t find him in now we _____ go there again.
7. The students _______ write four tests a year.
8. If I don’t hear from her today I ____ send her a telegram.
9. I couldn’t come. I ______ see a doctor about that tooth.
10. He’s too little for a long walk like that. Somebody _______ carry him part of the way.
Exercise 3
Fill in the blanks with must, have to, be to. Pay attention whether the action is only necessary or necessary and expected.
1. I ____ meet Mother at the station. So when the train drew in and she did not see me on the platform she was in a state.
2. I _____ leave early because I didn’t feel quite well.
3. One thing is clear. Someone ____ stay behind and look after the children and I don’t see why it _____ always be me.
4. The inn was very small and we _____ share a room.
5. This is Mary. She ____ live with us till her people come back from the east.
6. I’m the girl who ____ show you the place and introduce you to everybody.
7. At last everything was arranged. Daddy ____ call for us at ten and take us to the Zoo.
8. Mother had it all planned. Eileen ____ grow up a beauty and I ____ be the brains of the family.
9. You ____ hurry if you want to catch the train.
10. There’s no ice-cream. It ____ be delivered at twelve. I’m afraid someone ____ go down to the village and inquire.
Exercise 4
State in which meanings the modal verbs are used in these sentences. Translate them into Ukrainian.
1. The question must be solved before we can do anything.
2. Why do people have to call London a city of great contrasts?
3. The traffic keeps to the left in Great Britain. So you have to be very careful when you try to cross the road.
4. The jubilee is to be celebrated sometime this summer.
5. I have been on leave since Monday. I really must consult the doctor today as I have cut the last two consultations.
6. On Monday morning I was to have given my impressions of my trip abroad but unfortunately I was taken ill.
7. You are not to cool your food by blowing at it. Just wait a bit, there is no hurry.
8. And remember, you must come in and see the baby any time you can.
9. The doctor said to Mr. Walker, “You must keep off eating too much.”
10. What is to be done under the circumstances? Where am I to go?
11. Mind you mustn’t spend it all at once.
12. You are not to tell Mother about it. It’s our top secret.
13. I still hoped to get a letter from her, but it wasn’t to be.
14. But she must have seen him.
15. Oh, Mike, think how she must be suffering.
16. Those people must be tired, look at their faces.
17. They must have misunderstood me that Whitehall is a hall, it’s a street.
18. Helen must have failed to notice John or at least she pretended not to see him.
Exercise 5
Fill the spaces in the following sentences by inserting must or the present, future, or past form of have to.
1. She ____ leave home at eight every morning at present.
2. He sees very badly; he____ wear glasses all the time.
3. You ____ read this book; it’s really excellent.
4. She felt ill and ____ leave early.
5. I hadn’t enough money and I ____ pay by cheque.
6. I never remember his address; I always ____ look it up.
7. If you go to a dentist with a private practice you ____ pay him quite a lot of money.
8. In my district there is no gas laid on. People ____ use electricity for everything.
9. The shops here don’t deliver. We ____ carry everything home ourselves.
10. The buses were all full; I ____ get a taxi.
11. Tell her that she ____ be here by six. I insist on it.
12. When a tyre is punctured the driver ____ change the wheel.
13. She ____learn how to drive when her local railway station is closed.
14. Passengers____ cross the line by the foot-bridge.
15. I got lost and ____ ask a policeman the way.
16. Farmers____ get up early.
17. When I changed my job I ____ move to another flat.
18. Waiters____ pay tax on the tips that they receive.
19. Passengers____ be in possession of a ticket.
20. Whenever the dog wants to go out, I ____ get up and open the door.
Exercise 6
Write the sentences using can/ could, may/might, must, had to. Provide an appropriate context for these sentences.
Model: It must be a very interesting book. It’s worth reading. They say the plot is exciting, and the characters are true to life.
1. It is probably a very interesting game.
2. I am sure it is useful to go in for sports.
3. He is able to play football.
4. Perhaps the task is too difficult for them.
5. Perhaps they will win the game.
6. It is possible that they lost the game.
7. It is impossible that the match was easy.
8. I don’t believe that the trainer was satisfied with the results of the match.
9. I don’t believe that the trainer suggested such a silly thing.
10. Probably that tall boy is their best sportsman.
11. I don’t believe they will postpone such an important match.
12. He looks pale. Probably he is tired.
13. I am sure it’s a wonderful stadium.
14. Probably he did it.
15. He couldn’t but take part in the match.
Exercise 7
Put can, may or must (or the negative forms) in the spaces.
1. I _____ sharpen the pencils if you lend me your knife.
2. He told his secretary: “You _____ go home now if you like”.
3. The teacher told the class: “If you make a spelling mistake, you ____ write the correction three times”.
4. Mary _____ do her homework if her father doesn’t help her.
5. I said to my friend: “If I lend you my car, you _____ promise to drive it carefully”.
6. He ______ understand English people if they speak slowly.
7. _______ tell me the right time?
8. Little children _____ go to bed early.
9. I ______ write to him because I haven’t his address.
10. You _____ play football
Exercise 8
Study the following chart. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
Must in the meaning of duty, Must in the meaning of supposition of
obligation, necessity, command, high probability.
prohibition.
| You must work hard. He is ill. He must stay in bed for some time. You must do it immediately. You mustn’t play football in the street. | You have worked hard all day, you must be tired. He must be waiting for you already. I telephoned a doctor, but there was no reply. He must have gone out. |
Open the brackets using the correct form of the infinitive. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
1. George must (to be) pleased that he has passed his examinations.
2. I found this baby bird at the foot of a tree. It must (to fall) from the nest.
3. During the storm, the captain was on the bridge the whole time. He must (to be) exhausted afterwards.
4. If Fred left here at four o’clock, he must (to be) home by now.
5. Look, there is a tree right across the road! So there is. It must (to be) blown down by the gale last night.
6. I sat on a seat in the park and now my coat is covered in green stripes. The paint must (to be) wet.
7. As soon as I switched on my new electric cooker there was an explosion. There must (to be) something wrong with it.
8. I don’t know at what time I went to bed last night, but it was late. It must (to be) after midnight.
9. Look, the streets are wet; it must (to rain) now.
10. He promised to come at six, but he didn’t. He must (to forget) his promise.
11. I didn’t hear the telephone. I must (to be) asleep.
12. He must (to be) very careless if he makes such mistakes.
13. The baby woke up when she went into the bedroom. She must (to make) a noise.
14. The taxi-driver got to the airport in half an hour. He must (to drive) very fast.
15. He never got the letter. It must (to send) to the wrong address.
Exercise 9
Paraphrase the following sentences, using must+ infinitive to express supposition. Use the Indefinite infinitive when speaking about the present, the Perfect infinitive when speaking about the past.
1. No doubt she read about it in papers.
2. He is sure to be out at this time.
3. Of course she has changed her mind.
4. Probably they wanted to find a short cut through the forest.
5. They are certain to be looking for you.
6. Apparently she was trying to make up her mind about it.
7. No doubt they abandoned the car afterwards.
8. They are sure to have taken the wrong turning.
9. He is sure to be waiting for you at the office.
10. Probably they have taken the necessary steps.
Exercise 10
Fill the spaces by inserting have to in the correct form.
Model: The Present Indefinite Tense
She has to wear glasses, but only for reading.
We don’t have to come to the institute on Saturdays.
The Past Indefinite Tense
The last bus had gone,, so we had to take a taxi.
Yesterday was a holiday, so we didn’t have to get up early.
The Future Indefinite Tense
If you go there next winter, you will have to take some warm clothes with you.
The doctor said: “You’re much better. You won’t have to go to hospital”.
1. Fortunately his wife could drive, so he _____ drive all the way himself.
2. The apples were rotten; we _____ throw them away.
3. You can finish the work tomorrow; you _____ finish it today.
4. The old man can’t go out when it’s cold. He _____ stay indoors during the winter.
5. I’m very pleased that tomorrow is a holiday. I _____ get up early.
6. She lives a long way from the shops, but fortunately she ____ go shopping every day.
7. The bus was half empty yesterday, so I ______ stay.
8. My shirt is dirty. I ____ put on a clean one tomorrow morning.
9. Her father doesn’t allow her to stay out late. She ____ be in by nine o’clock every evening.
10. I must go to bed early tonight, as I _____ catch a train at five o’clock tomorrow morning.
Exercise 11
Express some planned, arranged necessity using the verb be to. Expand on the statements.
Model: They’re to arrive on Tuesday. We’ll discuss all the important questions with them.
1. He (to translate the article by Monday).
2. We (to leave home soon).
3. She (to move to a new flat).
4. They (to go to the country for the weekend).
5. He (to buy a new car; change his mind).
6. They (to arrange a meeting on Friday).
7. They (to hand in their papers in an hour).
8. They (to finish reading the book last week).
Exercise 12
Express some intention using the verb be to. Develop the situation.
Model: If you’re to become a top student, you must work extra hard. Only then you’ll make progress in foreign languages.
1. She (to be a well-known pianist).
2. He (to become a film-star).
3. They (to win the contest).
4. He (to become a professional sportsman).
5. You (to know the geography well).
6. They (to win the match).
Exercise 13
Write some instructions using the verb be to. Add some more sentences to develop the situation.
Model: These books are to be returned in two weeks. If you want to keep them longer, you must return them for renewal.
1. The form (to be filled).
2. The medicine (to take three times a day).
3. These tablets (to keep out of the reach of children).
4. This notice (to remove).
5. The tap (not to touch).
6. The window (not to open).
7. The task (to do in a month).
8. The instruction (to read at once).
Exercise 14
Express some order using the verb be to. React to these sentences in the appropriate way.
Model: You’re to help your brother.
Prompts: I’d like to, but…; I’m afraid that’s not possible; No way; All right, I’ll do that; Very well; No, I’d better not…
You (to do the room); you (to switch off the radio); he (to return home); she (to get down to work); you (not to come home late); you (not to argue back); you (not to put off till tomorrow what you can do today); he (not to smoke in the room); she (not to give up her English lessons).
Exercise 15
Express some prohibition using the verb be to. Make up responses to these sentences.
Model: You’re not to interrupt the adults.
Prompts: Well, I’m sorry. What more can I say? I’m terribly sorry. It won’t happen
again, I promise. Very sensible.
You (not to touch my things); you (not to be late for your lessons); you (not to take my cassette-recorder); he (not to come late); she (not to smoke); they (not to quarrel); you (not to speak loudly); you (not to lend him money).
Exercise 16
Fill in the blanks with be to, have to, or must using the correct form of the infinitive.
1. I didn’t know who ____ (to be) my travelling companion.
2. According to the state plan, many new dwelling houses _____ (to build) this year.
3. We _____(to work) hard to achieve good results.
4. “I think we _____ (to drop) anchor in that bay until the storm quiets down”, the captain said to his mate.
5. I _____ (to say) your behavior has been far from straightforward.
6. “Mabel has gone,” Lenny said in a flat, impersonal voice. The old woman went back to her chair and sat down heavily. “It _____ (to be). Where did she go, son?”
7. “Have you been studying much law lately?” I asked to change the subject. The answer was: ”Oh, my reading _____ hardly (to call) study.”
8. This is serious; you _____(not to joke) about it.
9. Will you please, hold the line a minute, darling? I _____(to change) the baby before I can speak to you.
10. If you go there in the morning, you _____(not to wait).
11. We couldn’t come, Henry _____(to take) some out-of-town relations to the theatre.
12. It was only a small family affair, so we _____(not to change).
13. I _____ (to tell) you it wasn’t simple after all. We _____(to tell) him all the details.
14. The day we _____ (to start) it rained worse than ever.
Exercise 17
Supply the correct forms of the words in brackets. Provide an appropriate context for these sentences.
Model: You (to be) to be home by 10 o’clock at the latest. – You are to be home by 10 o’clock at the latest. I want you to get home safely.
1. He (to be) to come soon.
2. They (to be) to arrive tonight.
3. They (to be) to be married in two months.
4. He (to be) to have gone to the conference last week, but he stayed at home.
5. She (to be) to be pitied.
6. If you (to be) to pass your exam, you must do your best.
7. They (to be) never to see their friend again.
8. If it (to be) to rain tomorrow, we’d stay in town.
9. The work (to be) to be finished in three weeks.
10. I (to be) to return home today.
11. You (to be) to listen to the text first, then you (to be) to do the exercises.
12. You (to be) not to take my books without my permission.
13. I never (dare) tell him the truth.
14. I (dare) say you’re tired after all that work.
Exercise 18
Work with a partner. Match the following headings to the four sets of verbs and phrases in the list below: permission; no obligation; obligation; prohibition.
U. ____________ Have to
Have got to
Must
Is / are supposed to
1. __________ Can’t
Isn’t/ aren’t allowed to
Mustn’t / isn’t / aren’t supposed to
2. __________ Don’t have to
Haven’t got to
3. __________ Can
Is / are allowed to
Think about the place where you study. Are there many rules or regulations? What are they?
Tell your group mates.
Exercise 19
Learn the following proverbs. Comment upon them and illustrate their meanings by little stories of your own invention.
1. Every oak must be an acorn.
2. Two of a trade can never agree.
3. As you make your bed, so you must lie in it.
4. Everything must have a beginning.
5. He who would climb the ladder must begin at the bottom.
6. If you cannot bite, never show your teeth.
7. Sticks and stones may break my bones, but words will never hurt me.
8. You cannot burn the candle at both ends.
9. The leopard cannot change his spots.
10. The remedy may be worth than the disease.
11. What can’t be cured must be endured.
12. May God defend me from my friends; I can defend myself from the enemies.
13. He that cannot obey cannot command.
14. What may be done at any time is done at no time.
15. Some people cannot see the wood for the trees.
16. You may lead the horse to the water, but you cannot make him drink.
Exercise 20
1. Read the text and do some deduction exercises.
Jeff wanted to take Ann to the disco on Saturday. She waited for him at home for an hour, but he didn’t turn up and he didn’t phone. Ann was angry, so she phoned Jake and asked him to take her to the disco. She knew that Jeff and Jake didn’t like each other. Later that evening, Jeff saw Ann at the disco with Jake. Jeff felt angry, so he left immediately.
Jane: Something must have delayed Jeff. He could have phoned Ann to explain. He might have had an accident on the way to her house.
Nick: He must have forgotten about the disco.
Jane: No. He can’t have forgotten about Ann.
Complete the sentences with must have done or can’t have done.
Later, Jeff said that he had phoned Ann before the disco.
Ann can’t have heard the phone.
a. Why didn’t she hear the phone? The television _____(be) too loud.
b. Because Ann didn’t answer the phone, Jeff _____(think) that she had already gone out.
c. After the disco, Ann didn’t look very happy. She _____(enjoy) the evening.
d. Jake looked miserable too. He _____(be) disappointed.
e. Jake didn’t mention Jeff. Jake _____(know) that Ann had planned to go to the disco with him.
f. Jane didn’t know the story about Ann and Jeff. Ann _____(tell) her.
g. A week after the evening at the disco, Ann got a letter from Jeff. In the letter Jeff _____(explain) what had happened and how he had felt. Ann understood.
h. Next Saturday, Ann and Jeff are going to the cinema together. They _____(solve) their problems.
2. Retell the story as Ann drawing her own deduction using must, may/might, can/could.
Exercise 21
Translate the following sentences from Ukrainian into English. Use the modal verbs: can/could, may/might, must/had to, have to.
1. Не може бути, щоб вони програли матч.
2. Мабуть, ви помиляєтесь.
3. Мабуть, він зараз знаходиться на стадіоні.
4. Він не вміє грати в теніс, але він добре грає у футбол.
5. Здається, вони візьмуть участь у цій грі.
6. Треба поспішати на стадіон. Інакше ми спізнимося на матч.
7. Будь-хто може помилятися.
8. Сподіваюсь, їхня мрія здійсниться.
9. Він міг би прийти вчасно.
10. Я можу вас запитати про ваші плани?
11. Вони мають більше часу приділяти тренуванню.
12. Команда мала прибути до міста в понеділок.
13. Він зараз може бути на спортивному майданчику.
14. Їм треба повернутися через дві години.
15. Ви повинні прислухатися до порад свого вчителя.
16. Цей хлопець, мабуть, їхній кращий гравець.
17. Цілком можливо, що вони завтра переможуть.
18. Він може залишити команду, якщо захоче.
19. Скажіть мені, будь-ласка, коли починається гра.
20. Ви обов’язково маєте взяти участь у спортивних змаганнях студентів університету.
Exercise 22
Translate into English.
1. Ти не повинен хвилюватися за мене.
2. Ти повинен зрозуміти, що не можна здаватися.
3. Тобі доведеться провітрити кімнату перед сном.
4. Ви обов’язково повинні зайти до нас на чашку чаю.
5. Ця угода повинна бути підписана у найближчому майбутньому.
6. Ми дуже нудьгуємо без тебе. Ти повинен приходити до нас частіше.
7. Мені часто доводиться стикатися з такими людьми.
8. Я загубила бібліотечну книгу і тепер мені доведеться сплатити штраф.
9. Хоча тобі й не подобається те, що я кажу, доведеться вислухати мене.
10. Не треба ні в чому її звинувачувати, вона діяла з найкращих спонукань.
11. Коли ви збираєтеся в похід?
12. Зустріч повинна розпочатися рівно о третій.
13. Я запитала лікаря, чи маю я щось приймати від безсоння?
14. Тобі доведеться носити уніформу.
15. Чому ти маєш ходити на роботу кожної суботи?
DARE and NEED
The verb “dare” as well as “need” has some peculiarities which make it different from other modal verbs.
It is used both as a normal verb (taking the auxiliary “do” in the interrogative and negative forms, “-s” in the 3d person singular and the to-Infinitive) and as anomalous verb (without any auxiliary in its interrogative and negative forms, without “-s” in the 3d person singular and without the particle “to” before the infinitive which follows it). “Dare” has two forms – “dare” for the Present and “dared” for the Past.
e.g. You dare address me in that tone!
How dare you laugh at me!
“Dare” means “to have the courage or impertinence to do something”. In the negative it denotes the lack of courage to do smth. (see the examples given above).
“Dare” is mostly used in interrogative and negative sentences and only with the Indefinite Infinitive.
“Need” expresses necessity and is mostly used in negative and interrogative sentences.
“Need” has only one tense form – the Present; it is used both with the Indefinite and with the Perfect Infinitive.
When “need” is used in the meaning of “to be in want of” it is treated as a normal verb (e.g. He needs a new pair of shoes.)
In the same way as “dare”, “need” is used as a normal and as an anomalous verb; the latter is much more common in colloquial English.
Compare: One need to be careful.
He did not need to be told twice.
Why need he bother us?
You needn’t be afraid.
“Need” is used in the following way:
| Meaning | Forms of the modal verb | Other ways of expressing the same meaning | Sentence patterns |
| Absence of necessity (in negatives) | Needn’t do Needn’t + Perfect infinitive denotes that smth, that has been done, was unnecessary. | There is no need to do it. It’s not necessary to do it. There is no necessity to do it. | The tutor needn’t explain such simple things; we know them quite well. We needn’t have brought our books on economics; we are having a class in English instead. |
| Permission not to do smth | You needn’t do | You needn’t do it. |
Note:
1. When need means absence of necessity, it has an equivalent – have to: He needn’t go there. – He doesn’t have to go there.
2. The Perfect infinitive used after need shows that an unnecessary action was done.
3. Did not have + infinitive simply shows that there was no necessity for the action in the past without showing whether the action was performed or not.
Exercises
Exercise 1
Express some threat using the verb ‘dare’. Expand on the statements.
Model: You dare touch me, I’ll fight you.
c. to argue back;
d. to hit him;
e. to be rude;
f. to call names;
g. to use bad language;
h. to laugh at me;
i. to tease her.
Exercise 2
Express some probability / supposition using ‘dare say’. Add some more sentences to develop the situation.
Model: I dare say he’s tired. He has worked for eight hours
j. he (to come later);
k. she (to be eager to buy this dress);
l. they (to be hungry);
m. you (to be thirsty);
n. they (to be exhausted);
o. you (to be interested in music);
p. she (to know a lot about the theatre);
q. he (to arrive tomorrow).
Exercise 3
Read the following extract and comment on the usage of the modal verbs.
The love that is given to ships is profoundly different from the love men feel for every other work of their hands – the love they bear to their houses, for instance – because it is untainted by the pride of possession. The pride of skill, the pride of responsibility, the pride of endurance there may be, but otherwise it is disinterested sentiment. No seaman ever cherished a ship, even if she belonged to him, merely because of the profit she put in his pocket. No one, I dare say, ever did; for a ship-owner, even of the best, has always been outside the pale of that sentiment, embracing in a feeling of intimate, equal fellowship the ship and the man, backing each other against the implacable, if sometimes dissembled, hostility of their world of waters. The sea – this truth must be confessed – has no generosity. No display of manly qualities – courage, endurance, faithfulness – has ever been known to touch its irresponsible consciousness of power. The ocean has the conscienceless temper of a savage autocrat spoiled by much adulation. The ocean cannot brook the slightest appearance of defiance, and has remained the irreconcilable enemy of ships and men ever since ships and men had the unheard of audacity to go afloat together in the face of his frown.
(From Mirror of the Sea by J. Conrad)
Exercise 4
Study the following chart. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian.
Needn’t (the meaning of absence of necessity )
With a non-perfect infinitive with a perfect infinitive
1. You needn’t write to him for he 1. He must be in his office at nine o’clock,
he will be here tomorrow. but he got up yesterday at six. He needn’t have got up so early.
2. I needn’t go to the shops today. 2. The water was clean and fit to drink; it
There is plenty of food in the house. needn’t have been boiled.
Practise the following according to the model.
Model: A. You went by taxi, I suppose? (to take a bus)
B. No, I took a bus.
C. You needn’t have taken a bus. You could have gone by taxi.
1. You went by bus, I suppose? (to walk).
2. You took a lift, I suppose? (to walk up the stairs).
3. You phoned him, I suppose? (to write).
4. You borrowed the books, I suppose? (to buy).
5. You went second class, I suppose? (to go first class).
6. You left your heavy case at the station, I suppose? (to take it with me).
7. You sent the sheets to the laundry, I suppose? (to wash it myself)
Exercise 5
Open the brackets using the correct form of the infinitive.
1. You needn’t (to send) a telegram; a letter would have done.
2. She washed all the plates, but some of them had not been used; they needn’t (to wash).
3. You needn’t (to buy) a new one. I could have lent you mine.
4. I knew I had to be at the airport before ten o’clock; I needn’t (to tell).
5. You needn’t (to help) him. (You helped him but he didn’t need help).
6. He was wide awake when his father called him at seven o’clock this morning; he needn’t (to call).
7. The gardener planted the flowers in March, but they needn’t (to plant) until May.
8. Why did they paint the garage doors? They were painted a few months ago. They needn’t (to paint) again.
9. I bought two bottles of milk.-You needn’t (to buy) milk; we have lots in the house.
10. I have just watered the roses.-You needn’t (to water) them. Look, it’s raining now!
Exercise 6
Paraphrase the following sentences so as to use need.
Model: It isn’t necessary to copy the composition; I can read it as it is. – You needn’t copy the composition… or: It was quite unnecessary to rush there in that weather. They would have managed perfectly well by themselves. – You needn’t have rushed there in that weather …
1. There was no necessity whatever for her to do it herself.
2. There is no earthly reason to worry. She is as strong as a horse.
3. There is no need for any of you to be present.
4. Is it any use our going into all that now?
5. It’s no use your talking to him now. His mind is made up.
6. Why did you mention all these figures? The situation was clear as it was.
7. Why do you want to press the skirt? It’s not creased at all.
8. Why do you want to do it all today?
9. It wasn’t necessary for Mother to cook this enormous dinner. We have brought all the food the children may want.
10. It isn’t necessary to take the six-thirty. A later train will do as well.
Exercise 7
Use must not or need not to fill the spaces in the following spaces. (Use mustn’t when the meaning is ‘it is not allowed’ and suggests a command. Use needn’t when the meaning is ‘it is not necessary’)
1. You ____ ring a bell. I have the key.
2. You ____ drink this; it’s poison.
3. We ____ drive fast; there is a speed limit there.
4. Students ____ bring books into the examination room.
5. You _____ write to him; he will be here tomorrow/
6. We ____ drive fast; we have plenty of time.
7. You____ make any noise or you’ll wake the baby.
8. You _____ bring an umbrella. It isn’t going to rain.
9. You ____ do all the exercise. Ten sentences will be enough.
10. Any child ____ lie to his parents.
11. You ____ turn on the light; I can see quite well.
12. You ____ strike a match; the room is full of gas.
13. We ____ make any more sandwiches; we have plenty now.
14. You ____ put salt in any of his dishes. Salt is very bad for him.
15. You ____ clean the windows. The window-cleaner will come tomorrow.
16. You _____ smoke in a non-smoking compartment.
17. I’ll lend you the money and you ____ pay me back till next month.
18. If you want time, pick up the receiver and dial 069; you ____ say anything.
Exercise 8
Paraphrase the following sentences. Use needn’t+ Perfect infinitive to show that the unnecessary action was carried out. Use did not have (to) to show that an action was unnecessary in the past.
Model: - I’m sorry I changed before dinner. Nobody else did.
I needn’t have changed before dinner. Nobody else did.
- I’m so glad it wasn’t necessary for me to take this examination in spring.
I’m so glad I did not have to take this examination in spring.
1. They did not make us buy a full ticket for Andy. We saved some money that way.
2. It wasn’t necessary to explain the rules to them. They made no mistakes of this kind.
3. They didn’t expect us to write outlines and I wasted so much time!
4. I’m sorry I bought these gloves. Mother gave me better ones for my birthday.
5. It was a comfortable journey because it wasn’t necessary to change anywhere.
6. It is a pity you walked. There is a bus which could take you here in ten minutes.
Exercise 9
Comment on the meaning of the modal verb “need”. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
1. Our friendship needn’t stop, need it?
2. Everything is packed, except my shirts, so you needn’t trouble.
3. “I’ve got lots of time. I needn’t go home for hours,” she said.
4. You needn’t bother about Mary any more.
5. Need we continue working by this plan?
6. You needn’t have walked there. You could have taken a bus.
7. You needn’t be afraid of telling me everything.
8. I was rather afraid that he might act as though we were intimate friends. But I needn’t have worried.
9. If you don’t like the dress, you needn’t take it.
Exercise 10
Fill in mustn’t, needn’t, didn’t need to, needn’t have.
1. You _______ bought me such an expensive present!
2. You _______ take your umbrella; the weather is fine.
3. I _____ catch the bus, because Jane picked me up.
4. You _______ smoke in here! This is a hospital.
5. She ______ dress formally for the occasion so she came in jeans.
6. Paul ________ brought up that subject, we had already discussed it.
Exercise 11
Ask about the necessity of performing an action for the particular occasion. Make use of the prompts.
Model: Need she do it right now? // Does she have to do it right now? // Has she got to do it right now?
Express non-necessity of performing an action. Make use of the prompts.
Model: She needn’t do it right now. // She doesn’t have to do it right now. // She hasn’t got to do it right now. (Present) She needn’t have done it. (Past)
r. Answer smb’s questions;
s. Go shopping;
t. Read the text;
u. Translate the article;
v. Watch the film;
w. Do the room;
x. Go to the market;
y. Buy some bread;
z. Learn the poem by heart;
aa. Prepare dinner;
bb. Do the exercises in writing;
cc. Copy out the text.
Exercise 12
Analyze the form of the modal verb. Say in which meaning it is used. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
1. You may keep the money I’ve given you, I don’t need it yet.
2. They need have no fear of that.
3. We needn’t go into this in present.
4. I don’t want to get up. – You don’t have to.
5. Doesn’t she have to work on Sunday?
6. If you don’t like it, you don’t have to pay for it.
7. He won’t have to go to the office. He’ll be able to do something about those roses at last.
8. You needn’t have gone into so many details. The report was too long.
9. We needn’t have gone to the post office to ring him up. There is a telephone booth round the corner.
10. You needn’t have shed my tears over that loss.
11. We needn’t have brought our bathing suits with us. It’s rather cold for swimming today.
12. He considered that this need not have taken place.
13. Must we copy the text two? – No, you needn’t.
14. Must I go there immediately? – No, you needn’t. Wait till I ring you up.
15. You needn’t come to classes today. You’ve handed in all your papers.
Exercise 13
Use modal verbs must (not) or need (not) to fill the spaces in the following sentences.
1. We’ve got plenty of time. We ______hurry.
2. We have enough food at home so we _____ go shopping today.
3. Dennis gave me a letter to post. I _____ forget to post it.
4. You ____ talk to other candidates during the exam.
5. There’s plenty of time for you to make up you mind. You ______ decide now.
6. You ____ take anything out of the shop without paying for it.
7. You _____wash those apples. They’ve already been washed.
8. This is a valuable book. You _____look after it carefully and you _____lose it.
9. We ____ open the lion’s cage. It is contrary to Zoo regulations.
10. It’s later than I thought. I_____be going now.
11. We ____ climb any higher; we can see very well from here.
12. You ____ ask a woman her age. It’s not polite.
13. I promised I’d be on time. I _____ be late.
14. Everything is OK. You _____trouble about that at all.
15. I can manage the shopping alone. You _____go with me.
Exercise 14
Paraphrase the following sentences so as to use different modal verbs to denote obligation as required by the sense of the sentence.
1. Last year it wasn’t necessary for you to see too many historic buildings and places when on holiday. And now you want a rest from sightseeing.
2. You seem to like crowds. So I advise you to meet and make friends with as many people as possible.
3. It isn’t necessary for you to prompt him, he never forgets the words. His memory is striking.
4. It was arranged that on the very day of his arrival they would record his speech, but they failed to do it, because something went wrong with the tape-recorder.
5. The main thing with higher education is that it isn’t necessary for some students to pay for it. What is more, they get grants.
6. Your teacher advised you to make use of the tape-recording to review the material. Why don’t you follow his advice?
7. Don’t get excited over such trifles. It’s not necessary for you to worry about little things.
8. I see no reason why we should argue.
9. It wasn’t necessary for her to carry the bags all by herself: there were porters at the station.
10. Is it so very necessary that you should go there at all?
11. What’s the use of reproaching yourself?
12. I don’t think there is any need to bother them.
13. It was quite unnecessary for you to do the work instead of him.
14. There is no use worrying about her; she is quite able to take care of herself.
Exercise 1 5
Translate into English.
1. Нам можна було не поспішати, у нас ще багато часу.
2. Даремно ви так далеко ходили, все можна купити в нашому магазині.
3. Я встигла все зробити вчора тільки тому, що мені не потрібно було готувати обід.
4. Мені не довелося довго його чекати. Він прийшов одразу ж.
5. Йому судилося стати моїм найкращим другом.
6. Вам доведеться подзвонити йому ще раз.
7. Я не можу піти. Я повинна доглядати за дитиною, я обіцяла сестрі.
8. Зачекай трохи, я маю дочитати розділ до кінця.
9. Мені довелося кинути все і їхати зустрічати її.
10. Вона могла б цього й не казати. Я і сам розумів, що скоїв дурницю.
SHALL / SHOULD, OUGHT TO
Modal verbs “should” and “ought to” are unchangeable. The difference in the meanings of these two verbs is sometimes very vague, therefore they are often interchangeable. Unlike the verb “should” which is used to express an individual opinion, the verb “ought” expresses something which is generally accepted or naturally expected under the circumstances.
“Shall” is still used to express obligation with the second and third person, but at present this use is restricted to formal or even archaic style and is mainly found in subordinate clauses (e.g. It has been decided that the second reading shall not be opposed). The verb “shall” is used only with the indefinite infinitive. At present it is generally used to express threats, warnings, promise.
| Meaning | Forms of the modal verbs | Other was of expressing the same meaning | Sentence patterns |
| Promise (in statements and negatives) | Smb shall do; smb shan’t do | You are sure to get … | Don’t worry, you shall have a minute’s rest before the meeting begins. |
| Threat and warning (in statements and negatives) | Smb shall do; smb shan’t do | _ | You shall be sorry. Put on your warm coat or you shall be sick. |
| Asking for instructions (in questions) | Shall smb do smth? | Must I do it? Do you want me to do it? Am I to do it? | Shall I read the text again? Shall I do it? |
| Advice and mild obligation (in statements, questions and negatives) | Shouldn’t smb do…? Should smb do …? Ought smb to do…? Oughtn’t smb to do smth? | _ | You should take this medicine three times a day before your meals. |
| Criticism of a past action (in statements and negatives) | Should have done Shouldn’t have done Ought to have done Oughtn’t to have done | _ | You ought to / should be speaking more clearly. You oughtn’t to / shouldn’t have done it. |
| Supposition implying probability (in statements and negatives) | Should do Shouldn’t do Ought to do Oughtn’t to do | Very likely …; It’s likely smb …; Most likely smb …; Very probably smb ; I think it’s probable that …; Probably not…; It’s unlikely that …; I don’t think smb … | Our guests should (ought to) be here soon (if they haven’t got lost). This homework shouldn’t (oughtn’t to) take you too long (if you’ve understood what you have to do). You should pass the exam (you’ve worked hard). |
| Emotional “should” (mostly in questions) | Why should smb do smth? Why should smb have done smth? | _ | Why should I go there? Why should he have told you the truth? |
Note:
1. In its meaning of promise shall refers only to the future. In indirect speech the form should is used to denote a relatively future action.
2. Ought in its suppositional meaning is used to express probability about the present or future only.
Exercises
Exercise 1
Translate the following sentences, analyze the verb should. State where it is an auxiliary verb (forming the conditional mood), where it is a modal verb (name the meaning of the modal verb) and where it is the part of a modal phrase expressing unreality.
1. Why shouldn’t he have said so if he meant it.
2. Strange that you shouldn’t have noticed anything out of the way.
3. He knew perfectly well that he should not have done it but he would not admit it.
4. This heat wave should last till the end of May at least.
5. But for these words I should have given in.
6. The more I thought the less I liked her idea that we should take Ethel’s money.
7. You really should try harder. You don’t seem to make any progress.
8. They should not allow young children to take part in the contest.
9. I wonder what I should have done but for her advice.
10. I should come too if it was not for the children.
11. I wonder why you never asked me. I should have told you all the facts.
12. Why should it be always me?
13. It was arranged that mother should come over for a long visit and look after them.
14. You should wear the hat a little lower over your eyes.
15. The picture should look very nice here where the light would fall on it.
16. I did not know he was in London or I should have come over to see him.
17. You shouldn’t wear sports clothes with high-heeled shoes. It doesn’t look right.
18. Nothing should have been touched.
19. Her suggestion was that we should do it in turns, boys and girls alike.
20. You should make up your mind one way or the other and stop wasting your time.
Exercise 2
Comment on the use of the modal verbs shall / should and ought to.
1. Don’t worry, you shall have a minute’s rest before the meeting begins.
2. Don’t get excited over such trifles. You shall catch up with the group in no time. I’ll help you.
3. If you are interested in the book so much, you shall be given it, I’m sure.
4. “You shall be sorry, Helen, if you don’t stop cutting lectures.”
5. You show very little interest in most of the subjects. You shall be ashamed of your ignorance later on.
6. Shall I help you to carry the books? They seem to be very heavy.
7. She pointed to the gramophone: “Shall I show you how to work it?”
8. Shall I pull the blinds down?
9. I think we should leave this young man behind.
10. You should look after your grandparents better.
11. He shouldn’t have taken the corner at such speed.
12. You should pass the exam. You’ve worked hard.
13. The porter saw him. He should be somewhere here.
14. It ought to rain a little later in the day.
15. If she goes to hospital for some treatment now and then to a sanatorium, it ought to be quite all right.
16. Why should he obey an order given him by a perfect stranger?
17. Why should he say so if he doesn’t mean it?
Exercise 3
Change the following statements into promises, warnings, threats by using shall+ infinitive. Report them in indirect speech.
1. He will catch pneumonia one of these days, walking bare-headed in the rain the way he does.
2. You will be perfectly all right. I’ll look after you.
3. You will remember these words. And quite soon at that.
4. Things will right themselves. Just take them easy.
5. She will be well in no time. She’s as strong as a horse.
6. You will get a wonderful time. See if you don’t.
7. He will pay you back sooner or later for what you did to him.
8. You will be hungry if you don’t eat anything now.
9. You will drive a car as soon as we get out of town.
Exercise 4
Advise somebody to do or not to do the actions named below.
Model: to wear a sweater – You should wear a sweater.
1. to take better care of one’s health;
2. to take more pains with your Latin;
3. not to talk and laugh loudly in public;
4. to go and see smth for oneself;
5. to eat more fruit;
6. not to smoke while eating;
7. not to read such trash;
8. to buy a really good dictionary;
9. to go and see the picture;
10. not to waste one’s time watching television evening after evening.
Exercise 5
Give advice in answer to the following statements. Use the word-combinations in brackets.
Model: I have such a headache. (to take an aspirin and go to bed) – You should take an aspirin and go to bed.
1. My feet are killing me. (not to wear such high heels)
2. I’ve been sleeping badly of late. (to take a walk last thing in the evening)
3. She’s grown out of this dress too. ( to let it out at the hem)
4. I have a slight irritation in my throat. (to smoke less)
5. They are making spelling mistakes. (to make somebody copy passages out of a book)
6. It is so hard to make him get up in the morning. (not to let smb watch television till all hours)
7. She never has any appetite. (not to give smb sweets)
8. The secretary must be out. There’s no one there. (to try the room next door)
9. She may have forgotten her promise. (to phone and remind her)
10. The students seemed unable to follow what he was saying. (not to speak so fast)
Exercise 6
Translate the following sentences. State in what meaning the modal verb shall is used. Give the Ukrainian equivalent.
1. Anyone found smoking on the premises shall be heavily fined.
2. Why should he have taken your word for it?
3. You shouldn’t have acted so rashly.
4. Shall I tell you all about it now?
5. The weather should be just right over there. August is always very sunny in the hills.
6. You shouldn’t promise things and then go back on your word.
7. Where shall I wait for you?
8. Why should you mind if I don’t?
9. You shall lose your looks before you are thirty if you go on eating sweets like that.
10. He should have written to explain why he wasn’t coming.
11. Nothing should have been done without him.
12. You shouldn’t say things behind people’s backs.
13. He should do well in this job. It’s just in his line.
14. She should know what she is speaking about. She’s quite an authority on the subject.
Exercise 7
Put should or shouldn’t in the spaces. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian. Watch the meaning of should / shouldn’t.
1. You _____ argue with your father; you _____ obey him.
2. Mothers ____ look after their children.
3. What are you doing here? You _____ be in bed. It’s very late.
4. That hat doesn’t suit you; you ______ buy another.
5. There are too many accidents. Everyone _____ be much more careful.
6. The teacher told us that we ______ write the meanings of new words in our notebooks.
7. Tom was often late and his father told him that he _____ wake up earlier.
8. She told her children that they _______ always say “Please” and “Thank you”.
9. The old man’s eyes are weak, and he ______ read without glasses.
Exercise 8
Study the following chart. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
“Should” + Non-perfect infinitive “Should” + Perfect infinitive
(the meaning of moral obligation, (the meaning of criticism of a past action,
advice, disapproval) disapproval, reproach, regret)
a) A man should help his parents when 1. She felt unwell yesterday;
become old. she shouldn’t have gone to the Institute.
b) He hasn’t got very good eyesight; 2. You can’t remember what he said;
he should sit in front of the class you should have listened more
near the blackboard. carefully.
c) You shouldn’t treat her like this. 3. She went out and got caught in the rain; she should have taken an umbrella with her.
Open the brackets using the correct form of the infinitive. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
1. I should (to send) him a birthday card, but I forgot to…
2. It’s three o’clock and I’m very hungry; I should (to eat) more for lunch.
3. The little boy was playing with his father’s typewriter and of course he broke it; he shouldn’t (to allow) to play with it.
4. The old man ran to catch the bus, although he had a weak heart; he shouldn’t (to run).
5. He didn’t mean to be rude; you shouldn’t (to be) so angry with him yesterday.
6. I was very tired last summer and I should (to take) a holiday, but there was too much work to do.
7. When he went into his bedroom, he found it icy cold; he shouldn’t (to leave) the windows open.
8. The workmen are very slow; the job should (to finish) a week ago.
9. To someone who wasn’t at the party: “We had a wonderful time; you should (to be) there.
10. You shouldn’t (to go) out yesterday without a coat. No wonder you caught a cold.
11. You should (to cross) the road by the subway (but you didn’t).
12. He should (to check) that his brakes were working perfectly (but he didn’t).
13. He should (to thank) us (we are offended that he didn’t).
14. You should (to warn) him that the ice was dangerous (but you didn’t).
15. Tom’s had another accident. He came out of the side road rather fast and a lorry crashed into him. It sounds like Tom’s fault. He should (to wait) till the main road was clear.
Exercise 9
Criticize the actions named in the sentences below.
Model: I took him to the pictures.
You shouldn’t have taken him to the pictures.
1. I’m not feeling well. It’s probably the fish I ate for lunch.
2. I never thought to leave a message for her.
3. He didn’t explain to me how to work the thing.
4. I can’t think now why I bought these red shoes.
5. We didn’t wait for them. It was beginning to rain.
6. I handed in my paper without rereading what I had written. I was afraid to.
7. She may not come. I forgot to remind her of her promise.
8. I was so busy that time. I did not see the film.
9. She was so cross, she was downright rude to me.
10. We did not feel like going anywhere. We just stayed at home.
Exercise 10
Change the following expressions of advice into criticism of a past action by changing the form of the infinitive.
Model: You shouldn’t say such things.-You shouldn’t have said such things.
1. You should try again.
2. He should speak to her about it.
3. They should keep that dog chained.
4. You shouldn’t eat starchy foods.
5. She should not go out in such weather.
6. You shouldn’t buy a hat which does not go with anything else you’ve got.
7. You should switch off the lights when you go out.
8. He should not forget to take his medicine.
9. You should spend more time out of doors.
10. Her mother should not let her read such trash.
Exercise 11
Give your friend a piece of advice. Use the appropriate modal verb. Expand on the statements. Make use of the prompts.
Model: You should go and see the new French film. It’s brilliant. The cast is splendid.
dd. Watch a film;
ee. Read a book;
ff. Go to the theatre;
gg. Have a little rest;
hh. Consult a dictionary;
ii. Listen to classical music;
jj. Help his / her parents;
kk. Take a book from the library;
ll. Go in for sports;
mm. Study foreign languages;
nn. Not to spend much time watching TV.
Exercise 12
Express indignation, irritation using the verb ‘should’. Make up responses to these questions. Make use of the prompts.
Model: Why should I do it right now? – They say “Never put off till tomorrow what you can do today”.
oo. Help him;
pp. Write to her;
qq. Stay at home;
rr. Answer his questions;
ss. Buy this dress / suit;
tt. Do the work alone;
uu. Give your money;
vv. Move to another flat;
ww. Correct his mistakes;
xx. Entertain them;
yy. Arrange the party;
zz. Sell the car;
aaa. Present her with flowers;
bbb. Follow your advice.
Exercise 13
Express the speaker’s insistence using the verb shall. Provide a natural conversational context for these remarks. Make use of the prompts.
Model: You shall do it as I say. You must obey me without questions.
ccc. Obey the rules;
ddd. Tell the truth;
eee. Go there right now;
fff. Give up smoking;
ggg. Break off with a bad crowd;
hhh. Buy a new suit;
iii. Stay at home;
jjj. Help your parents;
kkk. Invite your relatives to the party;
lll. Switch off the TV set;
mmm. Get down to work;
nnn. Finish the work by 5 o’clock.
Exercise 14
Make an offer. Use the appropriate modal verb. React to these questions in the appropriate way. Make use of the prompts.
Model: Shall I make you a cup of tea? – If you’re sure it’s not too much trouble.
ooo. Carry your bag;
ppp. Give him a lift;
qqq. Show them the way;
rrr. Show you about the city;
sss. Drive her home;
ttt. Prepare dinner;
uuu. Entertain the guests;
vvv. Give you a helping hand;
www. Open the window;
xxx. Move the chair;
yyy. Switch on the radio;
zzz. Clean your coat;
aaaa. Walk the dog;
bbbb. Water the flowers.
Exercise 15
Study the problem situations and try to solve them by asking for instructions.
Model: - You are going to the classroom, so is your teacher; she has a lot of books in her hands. What do you say? – Shall I help you to carry the books? They seem to be very heavy.
1. You are preparing for the exam in English, but you can’t concentrate on the subject because of the noise coming out of the room next door. Your friend sees how uncomfortable you feel. What does she suggest?
2. You friend cannot do a grammar exercise. You have already known the right way how to do it. What do you say?
3. You are writing a composition. But the words won’t come. Your teacher sees how hard you are trying to find suitable words. What does he say?
Think of similar problem situations of your own. Act them out.
Exercise 16
Respond to the following statements. Use shall to express warning or threat.
Model: Jane, you are so light-minded. The exams are only a few weeks off and you haven’t done a stroke of work yet. (to fail at the exam) – You shall fail at your exam if you go on like this.
1. Ann, you are very absent-minded at times and inattentive. (To have a lot of gaps in your knowledge)
2. Pete, there is nothing to complain of as far as your behaviour goes. You never talk back. But you are very obstinate sometimes. (to be hard to deal with)
3. Ann, English Grammar seems to come easy to you, but spelling rules just refuse to stick in your head. (to get a bad mark for a dictation)
Go on fulfilling the task in your own way.
Exercise 17
Express promise in the following situations.
Model: I’m dead tired after those exams. (to get a good rest during the holidays) – Keep your chin up. You shall get a good rest during the holidays. I will see to it.
1. I must leave for London for a couple of days, but I think the Dean won’t let me go. (to be allowed, to speak to the Dean myself)
2. Oh, what am I to do? The teacher asked me to fetch some books from the library, but it’s locked. (to be given some books from the English language room, to go there together)
3. Grammar is my weak point. I can’t get the rules straight, much as I try. (to manage it all right, to revise together)
Make up your own problem situations and working in pairs as students A and B respond to them.
Exercise 18
Give advice in answer to the following statements. Use the word combinations in brackets.
Model: I haven’t been sleeping well lately. (to take more exercise) – You should take more exercise.
1. The boy is little pale. (to play out-of-doors)
2. I’m afraid you’ll miss that train. (to take a taxi)
3. There is no one in. (to try the room next door)
4. She may have forgotten all about her promise. (to phone and remind her)
5. I don’t know which hat to take. (to take the one which goes with your coat)
6. I have a slight irritation in my throat. (to smoke less)
7. The child simply won’t eat soup. (not to give her sweets before dinner)
8. She makes a lot of spelling mistakes. (to make her copy passages out of the book)
9. The dog is afraid of him. (not to shout at the dog)
10. The students seemed unable to follow what I was saying. (not to speak so fast)
Exercise 19
Criticize the actions mentioned in the following sentences.
Model: I did not buy the book. – You should have bought it.
1. So I took the child to the pictures.
2. We forgot to leave a message for her.
3. We did not wait for her. It was beginning to rain.
4. I did not think of it before.
5. I did not explain to her how to get there.
6. I bought a pair of red shoes to go with my dress.
7. So I told her to her face what we really think of her wonderful idea.
8. I have not seen the film. I was busy and didn’t go.
9. My fountain pen was leaking, so I wrote in pencil.
10. I’m afraid I ate too much cake with my tea.
Exercise 20
Supply the correct forms of the modal verbs in brackets. Provide an appropriate context for these sentences.
Model: You should try something easier first. This book is very difficult to understand.
1. You (need) not go there. They won’t come back till next week.
2. She (need) to read more if she wanted to pass her exam successfully.
3. He (need) to practice more if he is to improve his playing.
4. (Need) Mary any help?
5. –He was at the theatre.- But he (should) be at school.
6. –I went there alone. – You (should) not do it.
7. You (need) not take your umbrella with you. It is not raining.
8. He (need) a good piece of advice.
9. – He looked unwell. – He (should) consult a doctor.
10. The weather was nasty. You (should) stay at home.
Exercise 21
Put ought to or oughtn’t to in the spaces. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian. Watch the meaning of ought to and oughtn’t to.
1. The policeman told the driver that he _____ drive more carefully.
2. I told the boys that they ______ swim near the bridge, because it was dangerous.
3. My uncle is nearly seventy years old. He is still working but he _____ retire.
4. You ____ keep that book. It doesn’t belong to you.
5. The woman is looking ill. She _____ see a doctor.
6. He is tired. He _____ work so hard.
7. The teacher told Tom that he _____ make so many careless mistakes.
8. The doctor told the fat man that he _____ eat so much.
9. I ______ finish this work today, but I’m very tired.
Exercise 22
Put can, may, must, should, ought to, have to, be able to (or the negative forms) and needn’t in spaces.
1. The doctor said: “The child is very ill. He _____ taken to the hospital at once’.
2. A man ____ help his parents when they become old.
3. There are no buses or taxis, so we _____ walk.
4. Everybody _____ learn a foreign language.
5. We ____ leave without food and water. We _____ eat and drink.
6. I ______ get up early tomorrow, so I _____ go to bed late tonight.
7. You _____ drive a car at night without lights.
8. Tom’s father told him that he ____ ask silly questions,
9. Man _____ live by bread alone.
10. The matter _____ be discussed in tomorrow’s debate.
11. You _____ sit there in your wet clothes; you will catch cold if you do.
12. They ____ do all the exercises; it will be sufficient if they do four of them.
13. You _____ do whatever you like.
14. We ____ go away just yet; our train doesn’t leave for half an hour yet.
15. I ______ read to the end of the story, because I want to see who gets the treasure.
16. Why _____ I go there?
17. She ____ sing quite well.
18. You ____ say anything. Just nod your head and he will understand.
19. _____ I use your phone? – You _____ ask for permission; you _____ use it whenever you like.
20. You _____ leave your dog with us if you don’t want to take him with you.
21. You _____ take a horse to water but you _____ make him drink.
22. The ice is quite thick. We ____ walk on it.
23. If you don’t know the meaning of a word you ____ use a dictionary.
24. He _____ swim very soon.
Exercise 23
Replace the infinitives in brackets by should, must, had to, shall have to + infinitive depending on whether the sentences contain advice, criticism of a past action or a statement of necessity.
1. My sister was taking her examination yesterday and I (to look after) her baby.
2. I (to get up) at half past seven to get to the office in time.
3. You (to wear) a rain-coat. You are wet through.
4. You knew I was bringing people to dinner. You (to bake) a cake.
5. It was my son’s birthday so I (to bake) a cake.
6. They will get hungry on the train. You (to give) them some sandwiches.
7. He couldn’t do his lessons. I (to explain) some things to him. It took me lots of time.
8. You (not to get) so excited. It’s bad for you.
9. There was no kindergarten where they lived and she (to take) the child across the whole city.
10. She was out when I came. I (to go) there tomorrow.
11. You (to give) him more milk to drink. It’s so good for the teeth.
12. The dress is a little too wide. You (to take) it in at the seams.
Exercise 24
Replace the infinitives in brackets by should, need, have + infinitive, depending on whether you give advice, permission not to do something, criticize a past action or state an absence of necessity for the action.
a) You (not to go out) in this rain. You have a bad cold.
b) You (not to go out) today. We have everything we want.
c) You (not to lose one’s temper). It put you automatically in the wrong.
d) You (not to give) all the details. You forgot that you were dealing with well-informed people.
e) It was Sunday and I (not to go) to the office.
f) You (not to tell) her that. Now she won’t sleep.
g) You (not to put) so much sugar into the custard. No one will be able to eat it.
h) You (not to use) any gelatine. Such thick broth jells by itself.
i) It was so warm we (not to wear) our coats. It was very pleasant.
j) You never (to try) to do everything at once. You must plan things.
k) It is so warm there you (not to bring) any woolens.
l) I see now that I (not to worry). There was no danger whatever.
Exercise 25
Read the following extract and comment on the usage of the modal verbs.
In all the books I have read of people cast away on a desert island, they had either pockets full of tools or a chest of things would be thrown upon the beach as if on purpose. My case was very different. What with the cold and hunger, I felt more miserable than words can tell. I stood shivering in the rain, wet and barefoot, and wondered what I could do till it occurred to me that shellfish, of which there were plenty in the island, might be good to eat. I ate them cold and raw; and they seemed to me delicious. They must have poisoned me, for I had no sooner eaten my first meal, than I felt miserably sick and lay for a long time no better than dead.
In fact as long as I was on the island I never could distinguish what particular shellfish it was that hurt me: sometimes the shellfish restored my strength, and sometimes I felt sick for hours.
The second day I explored the entire island. I had to choose a place on a hillside to be my home. I had a good reason for my choice: from there I could distinguish the top of a great ancient church and the roofs of houses on the mainland. It seemed impossible that I should die on the shores of my own country and within view of men’s houses.
(From Kidnapped by R. L. Stevenson)
Exercise 26
Fill in the appropriate form of the verbs in brackets.
a) Jane didn’t turn up for the meeting. She must _______ (to forget) about it.
b) She might _______ (to stay) at Alison’s house last night, but I’m not sure.
c) Children are ______ (not to eat) in class. It is strictly forbidden.
d) He must _______ (to work) late last night. He looks very tired today.
e) He must _______ (to feel) very tired; he’s been working hard lately.
f) You should ______ (to come) to my birthday party; I was expecting you.
g) She can’t _______ (to be) at home otherwise she would have answered the door.
h) Tom needn’t ______ (to get) up early tomorrow as it is a holiday.
i) We ought to _______ (to be) more polite to her; then she wouldn’t have felt so offended.
j) Liz looks very annoyed. She must ______ (to wait) for ages.
Exercise 27
Work with a partner and do the following quiz.
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