Classification of sentences. Types of sentences.
Theoretical Grammar in the Systemic Conception of Language
Any language is regarded as a system of elements that have no value without each other, depend on each other and exist only in a system. Language includes 3 constituent parts:
1) Phonetics
2) Lexicology
3) Grammar
Grammar in it’s turn is divided into morphology and syntax.
Morphology studied the internal structure of the word, parts of speech and their grammatical categories. Syntax deals with the rules that govern combination of words in sentences and texts.
The interpretation is based on 3 notions:
1) Their different between language and speech
2) Their notion language levels and language units
3) Linguistic relations
The different (discrimination) of language and speech was made by Ferdinand de Saussure.
Language is a collective body of knowledge, a set of basic elements. It includes phonemes, morphemes, words, word groups and a set of rules how to use them.
Speech is the use of the language in the process of communication.
| Language | Speech |
| Social (used by society) | Individual (have peculiarities, belong to one’s) |
| Systemic (Hierarchical) | Linear (one by one) |
| Potential (a lot of opportunities) | Actual (real, one opportunity) |
| Static | Dynamic (change, develop) |
Problem 1. Language levels and units
| Level | Unit | Function |
| Phonological | Phoneme | Building (a+n=an) Distinctive (back-bag) |
| Morphological | Morpheme | Meaningful |
| Lexemic | Lexeme Word form | Nominative (name objects and phenomena) |
| Phraseomic | Word group | Characterization of a complex phenomenon |
| Proposemic level of sentence | Sentence | Communicative Predicative Predication is a combination of a subject and a predicate. The predicate expresses tense and mood. They connect what it is with what is said (the sentence with the objective reality) |
| Topicalization | Utterance Text | Topicalization Stylization (can make the analyze) |
Problem 2. Linguistic relation
There exist 2 fundamental typed of linguistic relation: paradigmatic (PR - как существует) and syntagmatic (как ведет себя в речи).
PR
A linguistic unit enters into PR with all the units that can occur in the same environment. These are the units that replace each other. There are 3 types of PR:
1) Semantic PR are based on similarity of meaning (he went/used to go/would go to school as a child)
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2) Formal PR are based on similarity of forms. A paradigm is a set of all the forms of one and the same word that exist in the language (infinitive – 6 forms, adverb – 3 forms) A dog – dogs
The dog – the dogs
A dog’s (leg) – dogs’ (legs)
The dog’s – the dogs’
3) Functional PR are based on similarity of function (a/the/my/this/one/smbd’s dog)
SR
A linguistic unit enters into SR with other units of the same level it occurs with (The teacher is going a lecture).
There are 3 types of SR:
1) Coordinate SR are R of independent. The units are equal (pen and pencil, big and nice, the lecture was over and we went home)
2) Subordinate SR are R of independence. One unit is principal and the other is dependent (beautiful girl).
3) Predicate SR are R of interdependence. Predicative SR can be primary and secondary.
Primary R exist between the subject and the predicate on the sentence level – the lesson is over.
Secondary R exist between a nominal element and a verbal on the phrase level – I want the lecture to be over.
9. Parts of Speech problems. Word classes
The parts of speech are classes of words, all the members of these classes having certain characteristics in common which distinguish them from the members of other classes.
Word classes refers to a group of words which have similar functions. Word classes are divided into open classes and closed classes.
Open classes include lexical words such as
1) nouns (dinner, place, Francis),
2) verbs (meet, drive, go, pick),
3) adjectives (old, angry, helpful),
4) adverbs (quickly, carefully, fast).
Open classes admit new words.
Closed classeshave limited membership. They include function words such as
1) pronouns (it, he, who, anybody, one),
2) determiners (a, the, that, some, each, several),
3) modal verbs (may, could, must),
4) auxiliary verbs (be, have, do),
5) conjunctions (and, but, if, unless),
6) prepositions (in, at, of, by, with).
They do not admit new words.
The problem of word classification into parts of speech still remains one of the most controversial problems in modern linguistics.
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There are four approaches to the problem:
1) Classical (logical-inflectional)
2) Functional
3) Distributional
4) Complex
| Theory | Origin/author | Criterion/criteria | Result | Drawback/advantages |
| Classical | Based on Latin grammar | Morphological form of the word | 1) Declinable (nouns, pronouns, verbs, participles, adjectives) 2) Non-declinable adverbs, prepositions,conjunctions, interjections, articles) | It cannot be applied to English, because it is an analytical language and the principle of declinability/ indeclinability is not relevant for analytical languages. |
| Functi onal | The author is Henry Sweet (1892), | Function (Nominative) | 1)nominative (noun-words, adjective-words, verb (finite verb), verbals) 2) particles, can’t perform nominative: adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection. | Henry Sweet failed to break the tradition and classified parts of speech into declinable and non-declinable |
| Distribu tional | Charles Fries (1956) | Combinability (the position of a word in the sentence is the syntactic function of word). | 1) 4 major classes of words (They contain 67% of total instances of the vocabulary) 2) 15 functional classes (These function words (numbering 154 in all) make up a third of the recorded material) | He was the first linguist to pay attention to functional parts of speech and their peculiarities, but His functional classes are very much broken into small groups. Being deprived of meaning, his word-classes are “faceless”, i.e. they have no character. |
| Complex (traditi onal) | - | It’s based on 3 criteria: 1) meaning 2) form 3) function | 1) notional (are those denoting things, objects, notions, qualities, etc. – words with the corresponding references in the objective reality): nouns, pronouns, numerals, verbs, adjectives, adverbs. 2) functional (are those having no references of their own in the objective reality; most of them are used only as grammatical means to form up and frame utterances): articles, particles, prepositions, conjunctions,modal words, the interjection. | The advantages of complex theory is that it discriminates parts of speech on the basis of several criteria and describes the parts of speech from every aspect |
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Principal sentence parts
The principal sentence parts arethe subject and the predicate.
Subject
Subject is the part of a sentence or clause that commonly indicates what it is about, or who or what performs the action (that is, the agent). The subject is typically a noun, noun phrase, or pronoun, but may be expressed in different ways:
-as a noun: The boy like reading
-as a pronoun: I like reading
-as a gerund: Reading is what I like
-as an infinitive: To like reading is well
-as a clause: What you like is reading
-as a numeral: 2 of them like reading
In a declarative sentence, the subject usually appears before the verb (The boy isreading). In an interrogative sentence, the subject usually follows the first part of a verb (Is the boy reading?).
Predicate
The predicate is the second principal part of the sentence which expresses an action, state, or quality of the person or thing denoted by the subject. It is grammatically dependent upon the subject.
As a rule the predicate contains a finite verb which may express tense, mood, voice, aspect, and sometimes person and number. According to the structure and the meaning of the predicate we distinguish two main types: the simple predicate and the compound predicate.
| Simple (Verbal) is expressed by a finite verb in a simple or a compound tense form He runs fast He is running fast | Compound consists of two parts 1) a finite verb and 2) some other part of speech: a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, a verb, etc | Mixed (both modal and nominal) He must be smart | ||
| Verbal | Nominal (a link-verb+ predicative (nominal part) He is a student He is smart He is alive | |||
| Aspect (phasal) Verbs beginning, ending or continuing process He began to run | Modal He must run | |||
The subject is typically a verb, but may be expressed in different ways:
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-as a verb: The boy is dancing
-as a gerund: His hobby is dancing
-as a noun: Dancing is his hobby
-as a pronoun: It’s me
-as a adjective: It was wonderful
Classification of sentences. Types of sentences.
A sentence is the basic unit of language which expresses a complete thought.
Sentences can be classified based on their purpose:
1) A declarative sentence or declaration, the most common type, commonly makes a statement
I have to go to work
2)An interrogative sentence or question is commonly used to request information
Do I have to go to work?
But sometimes not, so this is a rhetorical question (To be or not to be?)
3) An exclamatory sentence or exclamation is generally a more emphatic form of statement expressing emotion
I’m so glad to see you!
4) An imperative sentence or command tells someone to do something (and if done strongly may be considered both imperative and exclamatory)
Go to work! Do it!
On the basis of predicative line presentation, sentences are divided into:
1) The simple sentence is a sentence in which only one predicative line is expressed.
a) According to their structure simple sentences are divided into
| One-member (1 principal member) | Two-member (two PM) | ||
| Nominal (Silence!) | Verbal (To think of that! Look!) | Complete (I like dogs) | Incomplete (Seems difficult) |
b) According to their type of the subject
| Personal (besides it, there) | Impersonal (it, there) |
| I like dogs | There is a dog |
c) According to the type of the predicate
| Process featuring (only verbs) | Substance featuring (there is smth else besides verbs) |
| I like dogs | There is a dog |
d) According to the type of the subject-object relation
| Subjective (only subject, transitive verbs) I’am a student | Objective (there is an object, intransitive verbs) I’m reading a book | Potentially objective (there is no object, but it implied, intransitive verbs) I’m reading |
e) According to the presence of secondary parts
| Unextended | Extended |
| (only 2 principal parts) I’m a student | (there is a secondary parts besides principal ones) I’m a good student |
2) Composite sentences is a sentence in which two or more predicative lines are expressed.
A) The complex sentences
The complex sentence is based on hypotaxis (гипотаксис – подчинительные связи), i.e. subordination. By subordination the principal clause positionally dominates the subordinate clause making up with it a semantico-syntactic unity. The subordinate clause can be joined to the principal clause either by a subordinating connector, or, with some types of clauses, asyndetically.
Subordinate clauses can be classified on different principles: either functional, or categorial.
In accord with the functional principle, subordinate clauses are classified on the analogy of the positional parts of the simple sentence. As a result of this classification, subordinate clauses are classified into subject, predicative, object, attributive, and adverbial.
1) Nominal (What I need is a piece of good advice)
2) Attributive (A man whose voice seemed familiar to me gave commands)
3) Adverbial (I’ll be glad when he comes)
Nominal clauses
1) Subject (How the book will sell depends on its plot and the author.)
2) Predicative (That’s what I want you to do)
3) Object (I don’t know why I like you so much.)
The categorial classification is aimed at revealing the inherent nominative properties of the subordinate clauses irrespective of its immediate position in the sentence. According to it all subordinate clauses are divided into three generalized types: clauses of primary nominal positions (subject, predicative, object clauses), clauses of secondary nominal positions (attributive clauses), clauses of adverbial positions.
Subordinate сlauses
1) Substantive-nominal (What I want to do is to go home)
2) Qualification-nominal (The man who is talking to her is my brother)
3) Adverbial (Everything will be OK if we come in time)
B) The compound sentences
The compound sentence is based on parataxis (паратаксис – предикативные группы ставятся друг после друга без обозначения связи между ними при помощи каких-либо соединительных слов), i.e. coordination. By coordination the clauses in the composite sentence are arranged as units of syntactically equal rank. The position of the coordinate clause is always rigidly (жестко, твердо) fixed and it serves as one of the differential features of coordination as such.
It is usual to single out the following types of semantic relations between coordinative clauses: copulative (соединительный), adversative (противительный), disjunctive, causal, consequential.
1) Copulative (I didn’t recognize the girl, nor did I remember her name)
2) Adversative (The story was amusing, but nobody laughed)
3) Disjunctive (Either listen to me, or I shall stop reading to you)
4) Causative-consecutive (The days became longer, for it was now springtime)
Coordinating connectors are divided into proper (and, but, or, nor, for, either, neither, etc.) and semi-funtional (then, yet, so, thus, consequently, etc.), the latter revealing adverbial features.
Semi-composition sentences
Semi-composite sentences are sentences in which one predicative line is represented by a semi-predicative construction. Semi-composite sentences are divided into semi-complex and semi-compound according to the type of relations between the semi-clause and the main clause - subordinative and coordinative, respectively.
The semi-complex sentence is a semi-composite sentence built up on the principle of subordination.
The semi-complex sentences fall into a number of subtypes. Their basic division is dependent on the character of predicative fusion (cлияние, объединение ):this may be effected either by the process of position-sharing (word- sharing), or by the process of direct linear expansion (расширение, увеличение).
The sentences based on position-sharing fall into those of subject-sharing (наложение двух предложений на общее подлежащее: The man stood silent = The man stood. The man was silent.) and those of object-sharing (I saw him crossing the street = I saw him. He was crossing the street).
The sentences based on semi-predicative linear expansion fall into those of attributive complication (This is a letter received yesterday = This is a letter which was received yesterday), adverbial complication (The work being done, she left for home = The work was done. She left for home), and nominal-phrase complication (For me to do it was easy = I did it. It was easy (constructions with the infinitive and gerund).
The semi-compound sentence is a semi-composite sentence built up on the principle of coordination. There are different structural types of syntactic coordination: coordinated subjects, predicates, objects, adverbial modifiers (с однородными членами предложения) (They talked and laughed at the lecture).
- Secondary sentences Parts
The secondary parts are:
1) the object
2) the attribute
3) the adverbial modifier
4) independent elements of the sentences (the apposition; the parenthesis; the address; the interjection)
1) The object is a substance modifier of the predicate; it denotes a thing or the creature to which the action passes on. The object can be expressed in different ways.
-as a noun: I like dogs
-as a pronoun: I like them
-as a gerund: I like reading
-as an infinitive: I like to read
-as a clause: I like what you like
-as a numeral: I like 2 of them
From the point of view of their value and grammatical peculiarities objects are divided into
Direct Indirect
(denotes the thing) (denotes the person towards whom the thing is moved)
I like dogs Non-prepositional Prepositional
I sent you a present I sent a present to you
2) The attribute is a quality modifier of substantive parts, either the subject or the object. It may be expressed by different parts of speech:
-as an adjective: I like big dogs
-as an pronoun: I like these dogs
-as a numerals: I like 2 of these dogs
-as a noun in possessive case: I like Mary’s dog
-as a participle: I don’t like barking dogs
3) The adverbial modifier characterizes the action or the process (qualitatively, quantitatively or the whole situation)
It may be expressed by different parts of speech
-as an adverb: He sings well
-as a numeral: He was born in 1998
-as a noun: He sings every day
-as an infinitive: He went to see us
Semantically adverbials may denote:
-place: He is singing in the room
-manner: He is singing well
-purpose: He went here to sing
-degree: He sings very well
-time: He will sing tomorrow
-cause: He isn’t singing because he’s ill
-comparison: He sings like his brother
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