Elliptical (incomplete) sentences
An elliptical sentence is a sentence in which one or more word-forms in the principal positions are omitted. Ellipsis here refers only to the structural elements of the sentence, not the informational ones. This means that those words can be omitted, because they 1) have only grammatical, structural relevance or 2) do not carry any new relevant information. Such sentences are widely used in conversations. Compare in Russian: --Куда ты идешь? – В кино. \
-- Ты пойдешь в кино? -- Пойду.
Elliptical sentences can be easily restored: I sat near the window, he – near the door. If not today, then tomorrow they are to arrive.
We can omit:
1. the subject: Sam was in her blood. Had always been. Would always be. / Looks like rain.
2. the predicate: Some of the strangers spoke Spanish, others French.
3. the subject and part of the predicate: Going home? See what I mean? Heard nothing about him lately. Free this evening? Nice of you to come. He visited the places where he had played when a child. / We got acquainted while on a visit to the Crimea. / He is extremely well-read though very young.
4. the link-verb: Two vessels in sight, captain. You sure?
5. the predicative: -- Are you ready? – I am.
6. the auxiliary verb: Smoking strictly prohibited. Everything fixed?
7. both principal members of the sentence, the subject and the predicate: -- When will you write to him? – Tomorrow. -- Have you ever been abroad? – Never.
Ellipse is very often resorted to by writers to add dynamism to the described events: I ran after him, but he – over the garden wall. / -- Your name and address? – (It was a very personal question.) So good luck to you. Then rapidly to the door, down the steps, out into the street, and without looking to the right or left into the automobile, and in three minutes to the station, with utter disregard of traffic regulations and speed limits.
The composite sentence
The composite sentence is a sentence consisting of two or more clauses. In its structure a clause is similar to a simple sentence, but unlike a simple sentence it forms part of a bigger syntactical unit.
Within a composite sentence clauses may be joined by means of coordination or subordination, thus forming a compound or a complex sentence.
In a compound sentence all clauses are equal in rank and form one syntactical whole in meaning and intonation. The clauses in a compound sentence may be linked with the help of a conjunction, that is syndetically (1) or without any connector, that is asyndetically (2):
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(1) It was a nice little place and Mr. and Mrs. Witla were rather proud of it.
(2) The rain fell softly, the house was quiet.
Syndetic coordination is realized with a number of conjunctions, such as and, but, or, nor, for, etc.; or with conjunctive adverbs, such as so, yet, still, otherwise, therefore, etc..
From the point of view of the relationship between coordinative clauses, we distinguish four kinds of coordinative connection:
1. copulative coordination (Простая соединительная связь) with the help of the following connectors: and, nor, neither … nor …, not only…. but …, … as well as..: Neither the moon was visible in the dark night nor were the stars. / Not only was he dissatisfied but he was extremely indignant. Copulative coordination implies that two events or ideas are merely joined in time and place.
2. disjunctive coordination (Разделительная связь), with the help of the connectors: or, otherwise, else, either … or … : We must hurry or we shall miss the train. / You must fasten the boat to the pole, otherwise the current will carry it away. Disjunctive coordination denotes choice, usually between two alternatives.
3. adversative coordination (Противительная связь),with the help of the connectors: but, yet, still, nevertheless, however, while, whereas.: You can cross the river on that fallen tree, but be careful. / I was not unhappy, not much afraid, yet I wept. / The old people were all sitting while the younger were standing. Adversative coordination joins clauses containing opposition, contradiction or contrast.
4. Causative-consecutive coordination (Причинно-следственная связь), with the help of the connectors: for, so, therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence, then: I shan’t buy it, for I can’t afford it. / You have settled it all for yourself, so I wash my hands of it. / I had to be educated, therefore we had to live in a town. Causative-consecutive coordination joins clauses one of which contains a reason, the other – a consequence.
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Note: Don’t mix compound sentences with the causative-consecutive coordination and complex sentences with an adverbial clause of cause which is attached to the main clause with the help of the conjunction ‘because’: I shan’t buy it because I can’t afford it.
The clause with ‘for’ cannot be placed before the other half of the sentence. The conjunction ‘for’ is a coordinative conjunction.
The complex sentence
Clauses in a complex sentence are subordinated to the main clause or to each other, they are not equal in rank. Each clause, whether it is the main clause or a subordinate one, has its own subject-predicate unit.
The clauses in a complex sentence may be connected either with the help of various connectors (syndetically): More and more, she became convinced that some misfortune had overtaken Paul. or without them (asyndetically): I wish you had come.
The subordinate clause may either
· precede or follow the main clause: As the family had no visitors that day, its four members dined alone together.
· follow it: His steps quickened as he set out for the hotel.
· be placed inside it: It was dull and dreary enough, when the long summer evening closed in, on that Saturday night.
The main clause may have several subordinate clauses which are connected to each other by means of coordination: They were all obstinately of opinion that the poor girl had stolen the moonstone, and that she had destroyed herself in terror of being found out. / What Mr. Pancks knew about the Dorrit family, what more he really wanted to find out, and why he should trouble his busy head about them at all, were questions that often perplexed him.
One subordinate clause may be subordinated to another subordinate clause: I think I have noticedthat they have an inconsistent way of speaking about her, as if she had made some great self-interested success in marrying Mr. Gowan.
[We can present composite sentences graphically.
(1)Tell me where you live. (2) When she came, I told her that I was busy. (3) She told me that she had been in the South where she spent a month.]
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Subordinate clauses can be classified by their syntactic functions in the sentence like ordinary parts of the sentence. So they can perform the function of:
1. the subject: What I want to do is to save us both. / That he will come is certain. / Who
broke the glass remained unknown. / It is strange that he did not come at all.
2. the predicative: The question is whether he is able to do it alone. / This is why he is so
unhappy.
3. the object: He told me that he would come. / She was aware that someone else was there.
I am always ready to listen to whatever you may wish to disclose.
4. the attribute: The fortunate fact that the rector’s letter did not require an immediate
answer would give him time to consider. / I think my father is the best man I have ever known. /
But there is no private life which has not been determined by a wider, public life. / They
spoke no more all the way to the lodging where Fanny lived.
5. the adverbial modifier: My mother died when I was eight. (adverbial clause of time) / I
looked where she pointed. (adverbial clause of place) / Wounds sometimes must be opened in order that they may be healed. (adverbial clause of purpose) / If he is not here by the end of the week, I shall go after him. (adverbial clause of condition) / I enjoyed that day, though we traveled slowly, though it was cold, though it rained. (adverbial clause of concession) / Mr. Direck’s broken wrist healed sooner than he expected. (adverbial clause of comparison)
The composite sentence can include compound sentences as well as complex: The weather had been all the week extremely sultry but the storm broke so suddenly thatbefore we reached the outskirts of the wood,the rain came in torrents.
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