The Problem ofDialogical Texts
Traditionally, linguists apply the term 'text' to monological written texts [I.R. Galperin]. Nowadays, the term is extended to cover dialogical texts. On the one hand, they are certainly different. Monological texts are produced by one person. The primary form of their existence is written form. Dialogical texts are co-constructed by two or more people. The primary form of their existence is oral form.
On the other hand, they have much in common. According to O.I. Moskalskaya, both monological and dialogical texts are characterized by the following features:
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1) semantic integrity,
2) communicative structuring (theme-rheme organization),
3) the presence of cohesive devices.
True, in the process of realization each of the common features of monological and dialogical texts acquires slight nuances. Thus, semantic integrity in both kinds of texts is common only to supra-phrasal unities. A dialogical text as a whole is often polytopical.
As for communicative structuring, every sentence in monological texts has a theme and a rheme of its own, and constitutes a new step in the development of the communicative dynamism of the text. In dialogical texts, the theme and the rheme are often comprised in different sentences uttered by different interlocutors. For example, the question often forms the theme, the answer - the rheme.
The peculiarity of cohesive devices finds its expression in a much higher frequency of occurrence of metatextual constructions in dialogicai texts.
Text Composition
Each kind of text has its own composition. Here are a few illustrative examples.
The Composition of Fables:
1) exposition,
2) the characters' actions and speech,
3) moral.
For example:
The Peacelike Mongoose
In Cobra country a mongoose was born one day who didn't want to fight cobras or anything else. The word spread from mongoose to mongoose that there was a mongoose who didn't want to fight cobras. If he didn't want to fight anything else, it was his
own business, but it was the duty of every mongoose to kill cobras or be killed by cobras.
'Why?' asked the Peacelike mongoose, and the word went around that the strange new mongoose was not only pro-cobra and anti-mongoose but intellectually curious and against the ideals and traditions of mongoosism.
'He is crazy,' cried the young mongoose's father.
'He is sick,' said his mother.
'He is a coward,* shouted his brothers.
'He is a mongoosexual,7 whispered his sisters.
Strangers who had never laid eyes on the peacelike mongoose remembered that they had seen him crawling on his stomach, or trying on cobra hoods, or plotting the violent overthrow of Mongoosia.
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'I am trying to use reason and intelligence,' said the strange new mongoose.
'Reason is six-sevenths of treason,' said one of his neighbors.
'Intelligence is what the enemy uses,' said another.
Finally, the rumor spread that the mongoose had venom in his sting, like a cobra, and he was tried, convicted by a show of paws, and condemned to banishment.
Moral: Ashes to ashes, and clay to clay, if your enemy doesn't get you, your own folk may (J. Thurber).
| d discussing subject of call, (thanking, farewells, looking forward, |
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The Composition of Business Telephone Conversations:
For example:
A: John Matthews speaking. How can I help you? B: This is Brian Summers from Reynolds here. I'm calling about the delivery of some spare parts.
A: Right. That would be the rotary spare parts? B: That's right. They were due last Friday.
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A: Yes, I'm very sorry about the delay. Did you receive a call to let you know there were problems with delivery?
B: Yes, I did, but I would like to know the new delivery date.
A: Oh, I'm sorry. I thought we'd already informed you.
B: Not as far as I know.
A: Just a moment. I'll check for you... Right, we'll be delivering them on Tuesday.
B: Do you mind if I ask whether you're sure about this new date?
A: No, of course not. I can promise you, you'll have the parts on Tuesday.
B: Good. I'm pleased to hear that. Thanks very much. Goodbye.
A: Goodbye, Mr. Summers (J. Comfort).
Agent: All Canada Airlines. Can I help you?
Jack: Yes. I need a flight from Vancouver to Phoenix on Friday. Do you have any seats?
Agent: Let me see. Yes. I have one on the 5:30 flight.
Jack: Five thirty! What's the check-in time?
Agent: One hour economy. Thirty minutes Business Class. Will you take that?
Jack: No. I won't get to the airport in time. When will the next flight leave?
Agent: There won't be another direct flight on Friday. There'll be one on Saturday at the same time.
Jack: Fine. I'll take it.
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Agent: Just let me check. Oh, I'm sorry that flight's full (P. Viney).
The Composition of Business Letters:
1) letterhead (name of the company, address, telephone/fax
number).
2) date,
3) inner address,
4) salutation,
5) introducing subject of letter,
6) body of letter,
7) complementary close,
8) signature.
For example:
BAY STATE MAGAZINE 300 Commonwealth Avenue Boston, Massachusetts 02188 617-798-05065 FAX 617-798-5556
April 5, 1994
Public Information Department Click Camera Company 1000 Riverview Boulevard New York, New York 10010
Dear Sir or Madam:
In the April 4, 1994 Boston Daily News I read about your new camera, the X-Lite. Since I am a photographer with Bay State Magazine, it is important that T know about new cameras.
Would you please send me information on the camera? I would like to know when the camera will be available and how much it will cost.
Thank you for your attention. I look forward to your reply. Yours faithfully,
Jane Wilson Photo Department
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CAMERA COMPANY
1000 Riverview Boulevard
New York 10010
212-588-9542 FAX 212-588-9547
April 10, 1993
Jane Wilson
Bay State Magazine
300 Commonwealth Avenue
Boston, Massachusetts 02188
Dear Ms. Wilson:
Thank you for your letter of April 5, 1993 expressing interest in Click Camera's new camera, the X-Lite.
The camera will be available this December, and the cost will be approximately three hundred and fifty dollars ($350.00).
T have enclosed a brochure on the camera. If you have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact us or our local Click Camera dealer.
Again, thank you for your inquiry. Sincerely yours,
Helen Dodge Customer Service5
26. THE GRAMMAR OF CONVERSATION
The Greek origin of the word 'grammar' (from 'gramma' - 'a letter', 'a piece of writing') reminds us that the Western grammatical tradition is founded almost exclusively on the study of written language, a bias which still exists today.
However, speech precedes writing. Many different sorts of linguistic events come under the heading of spoken language, e.g.:
making a speech,
giving a lecture,
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gossiping with friends,
saying a prayer, reading a news bulletin on the radio,
reciting poetry, cross-examining a witness,
giving a commentary on a news-reel,
drilling a squad of soldiers,
acting in a play, having an argument,
taking part in a panel discussion, etc.
The most commonly used kind of spoken language is informal conversation, i.e. conversation on informal occasions, between people who know each other. Everyone makes use of this kind of English every day.
In view of this, it may seem odd that so little linguistic research has been carried out into this variety of English. There is, however, one very good reason for this lack of information, namely the procedural difficulty of obtaining reliable data to investigate. It is well known that most people will behave differently if they are aware of being tape-recorded or videotaped. The only safe way of obtaining genuine conversation is through the technique of surreptitious recording or videotaping. But a moral difficulty arises. If you tape-record or videotape the conversation participants clandestinely, you are practising a deception on them.
Now linguists use the resources of different computer corpora of conversational English to study what is characteristic of the grammar of English conversation. The fact that the Corpora material generally consists of transcriptions means that even here, the reliance on the written form of the language cannot be escaped.
The grammatical characteristics of conversation are predetermined by a spectrum of 'external' factors. So, we shall identify a range of social and situational characteristics of conversation, and discuss their association with particular grammatical traits that are common in conversation.
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