The Norman Conquest and the establishment of feudalism in England and further consolidation of the English state.
The Norman conquest of England began in 1066 AD with the invasion of the Kingdom of England by the troops of William, Duke of Normandy ("William the Conqueror"), and his victory at the Battle of Hastings. This resulted in Norman control of England, which was firmly established during the next few years. The Norman Conquest was a pivotal event in English history for several reasons. It largely removed the native ruling class, replacing it with a foreign, French-speaking monarchy, aristocracy and clerical hierarchy. This in turn brought about a transformation of the English language and the culture of England. By subjecting the country to rulers originating in France it linked England more closely with continental Europe, while lessening Scandinavian influence, and set the stage for a rivalry with France that would continue intermittently for more than eight centuries. It also had important consequences for the rest of the British Isles, paving the way for further Norman invasions in Wales and Ireland, and the extensive penetration of the aristocracy of Scotland by Norman and other French-speaking families. Meanwhile William assembled a large invasion fleet and an army gathered not only from Normandy but from all over France, including large contingents from Britanny and Flanders. He mustered his forces at Saint-Valery-sur-Somme. The army was ready to cross by 12 August. However, the crossing was delayed, either due to unfavourable weather or to the desire to avoid being intercepted by the powerful English fleet. The Normans did not in fact cross to England until a few days after Harold's victory over the Norwegians, following the dispersal of Harold's naval force. They landed at Pevensey in Sussex on 28 September and built a castle at Hastings, from which they raided the surrounding area.
England, 1066: Events in the Norman Conquest.
Marching south at the news of William's landing, Harold paused briefly at London to gather more troops, then advanced to meet William. They fought at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October. Harold was killed, along with his brothers Earl Gyrth and Earl Leofwine, and the English army fled.After his victory at Hastings, WIlliam of England expected to receive the submission of the surviving English leaders, but instead Edgar Atheling was proclaimed king by the Witenagemot, with the support of Earls Edwin and Morcar, Stigand, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Aldred, Archbishop of York.[8] William, who had received reinforcements from across the English Channel, therefore advanced, marching around the coast of Kent to London. He defeated an English force which attacked him at Southwark, but he was unable to storm London Bridge and therefore sought to reach the capital by a more circuitous route.[9] He moved up the Thames valley to cross the river at Wallingford, Oxfordshire; while there, he received the submission of Stigand. William then travelled northeast along the Chilterns, before advancing towards London from the northwest, fighting further engagements against forces from the city. Having failed to muster an effective military response, Edgar's leading supporters lost their nerve, and the English leaders surrendered to William at Berkhamstead, Hertfordshire.[10] William was acclaimed King of England and crowned by Aldred on 25 December 1066, in Westminster Abbey. Once England had been conquered, the Normans faced many challenges in maintaining control. The Anglo-Norman-speaking Normans were few in number compared to the native English population. Historians estimate the number of Norman knights at between 5,000 and 8,000.[27] The Normans overcame this numerical deficit by adopting innovative methods of control.
The main characteristics of the modern population of Great Britain. Languages spoken in the U.K.
With 50,431,700 inhabitants (84% of the UK total),[58] England is the most populous and most ethnically diverse nation in the United Kingdom. If it were a sovereign state, England would have the fourth largest population in the European Union and would be the 25th largest country by population in the world. England's population continues to grow: with the exception of 1976, there have been more births than deaths every year since 1901.[59] While the percentage of people over 65 increases, the percentage of people under 16 is falling, meaning the country's population is aging overall. With a density of 383 people per square kilometre (992/sq mi),[60] it is the most densely populated country in Europe, having recently overtaken the Netherlands.The generally accepted view[citation needed] is that the ethnic background of the English populace, before 19th and 20th century immigration, was a mixed European one deriving from historical waves of Celtic, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, Norse, and Norman invasions, along with the possible survival of pre-Celtic ancestry. Genetic studies have shown that the modern-day English gene pool contains more than 50% Germanic Y-chromosomes.The economic prosperity of England has also made it a destination for economic migrants from Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. This was particularly true during the Industrial Revolution.
Since the fall of the British Empire, many denizens of former colonies have migrated to Britain including the Indian sub-continent and the British Caribbean. A BBC-published report of the 2001 census, by the Institute for Public Policy Research stated that the vast majority of immigrants settled in London and the South East of England. The largest groups of residents born in other countries were from the Republic of Ireland, India, Pakistan, Germany, and the Caribbean. Although Germany was high on the list, this was mainly the result of children being born to British forces personnel stationed in that country. About half the population increase between 1991 and 2001 was due to foreign-born immigration. In 2004 the number of people who became British citizens rose to a record 140,795—a rise of 12% on the previous year. The number had risen dramatically since 2000. The overwhelming majority of new citizens come from Africa (32%) and Asia (40%), the largest three groups being people from India, Pakistan and Somalia.In 2006, an estimated 591,000 migrants] arrived to live in the UK for at least a year, while 400,000 people emigrated from the UK for a year or more, with Australia, Spain, France, New Zealand and the U.S. most popular destinations. Largest group of arrivals were people from the Indian subcontinent who accounted for two-thirds of net immigration, mainly fueled by family reunion.One in six were from Eastern European countries. They were outnumbered by immigrants from New Commonwealth countries. The English language concerns to West-German group Indo-European languages
7.National traits of the British people and their traditions, major symbols of the four nations inhabiting the British Isles, the concept of national identity.EnglandOf the four countries which make, up the United Kingdom, England is the largest. It occupies an area of 131,8 thousand sq. km. England borders on Scotland in the north.. In the east it is washed by the North Sea. In the south it is separated from the continent by the English Channel. In the west it borders on Wales and is washed by the Bristol Channel and by the Irish Sea.The highest part of England is in the west, from where the land gradually slopes down to the east.The Atlantic Ocean washes the rocky and broken west coast of England, Wales and Scotland and is gradually wearing it away, leaving caves and sandy beaches. On the east coast the land is low and sandy.The rivers flowing to the east and emptying into the North Sea form deep estuaries well protected from the sea. The greatest port of the country London is conveniently situated in the Thames estuary. The white chalk cliffs of the south coast washed by the English Channel can be seen from many mil Л out at sea.As concerns the relief, England can be divided into Northern England mostly taken up by the low Pen nine Mountains, the Central Plain, lowland South east England, and hilly South-west England.Scotland. Scotland is the most northern of the countries that constitute the United Kingdom. It occupies an are! of 78,8 thousand sq. km.Scotland is washed by the Atlantic Ocean in the north and west and by the North Sea in the east.The coastline of Scotland is greatly indented. Ь many places deep fiords penetrate very far inland. I Geographically the territory of Scotland can b<| divided into three regions: the Northern Highlands! the Central Lowlands and the Southern Uplands.The Highlands are the highest mountains in the British Isles. Their average height does not exceed 157 m above sea level, though some peaks are much hitfber, rising over a thousand metres. Ben Nevis, the .highest peak in the British Isles, reaches the height of 1343 m.he Lowlands are the cradle of the Scottish nation. They are densely populated.The Southern Uplands seldom rise over 579 m above sea level. It is one of the most sparsely populated districts in Great Britain.Wales.Wales is a peninsula washed by the sea on three sides: the Bristol Channel in the south, the St. George's Channel in the west, and the Irish Sea in the north. Its territory is 20,8 thousand sq. km.
Geographically Wales may be considered part of highland Britain, the Cumbrian Mountains occupying most of the land. It is an area of high mountains, deep valleys, waterfalls and lakes. Wales is a region of heavy rainfall brought by the prevailing west winds from the Atlantic Ocean. The valleys are sheltered by the high mountains from cold east winds. The climate is rather mild. Wales has never been densely populated. The Welsh have kept their own language, but English is spoken in town as well.Northern Ireland.Northern Ireland occupies the north-eastern part of Ireland, which is separated from the island of Great! Britain by the North Channel. In the south-west Northern Ireland borders on the Irish Republic) (Eire).Almost all the area of Northern Ireland is a plain of volcanic origin, deepening in the centre to form! the largest lake of the British Isles, Lough Neagh.The greatly indented coastline of Northern Ireland is abundant in rocks and cliffs.Northern Ireland has a typical oceanic climate with mild damp winters (the mean temperature in January is +4, +5) and cool rainy summers (the mean temperature in July is +14, +15).Forests are rather scarce, moors and meadows prevail.Northern Ireland is mostly an agrarian district. On small farms they grow crops, especially oats, vegetables and potatoes. Large areas are taken up by meadows, where cattle graze. On the river banks and n the coasts the population is engaged in fishing.
The flag of the United Kingdom is the Union Flag. It was created by the superimposition of the Flag of England, the Flag of Scotland and Saint Patrick's Flag in 1801. Wales is not represented in the Union Flag as Wales had been conquered and annexed to England prior to the formation of the United Kingdom. However, the possibility of redesigning the Union Flag to include representation of Wales has not been completely ruled out.[237] The national anthem of the United Kingdom is "God Save the King", with "King" replaced with "Queen" in the lyrics whenever the monarch is a woman. The anthem's name remains "God Save the King".Britannia
is a national personification of the United Kingdom, originating from Roman Britain.[238] Britannia is symbolised as a young woman with brown or golden hair, wearing a Corinthian helmet and white robes. She holds Poseidon's three-pronged trident and a shield, bearing the Union Flag. Sometimes she is depicted as riding the back of a lion. At and since the height of the British Empire, Britannia has often associated with maritime dominance, as in the patriotic song Rule, Britannia!. The lion symbol is depicted behind Britannia on the British fifty pence coin and one is shown crowned on the back of the British ten pence coin. It is also used as a symbol on the non-ceremonial flag of the British Army. The bulldog is sometimes used as a symbol of the United Kingdom and has been associated with Winston Churchill's defiance of Nazi Germany.Eng.:fl:cross:patron:st.george:fl.:tudor roseScotl.:st.andrew;fl.:thirstleWales:st/david;fl:leek/daffodilN.Irel.:st.patrick;fl.:shamrock
8 Great Britain as a constitutional monarchy, its role and social influenceThe present monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, has reigned since 6 February 1952. She and her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial and representational duties. As a constitutional monarch, the Queen is limited to non-partisan functions such as bestowing honours. Though the ultimate executive authority over the government of the United Kingdom is still by and through the monarch's royal prerogative, in practice these powers are only used according to laws enacted in Parliament or within the constraints of convention and precedent.The British monarchy traces its origins from the kings of the Angles and the early Scottish kings.[2] By the year 1000, the kingdoms of England and Scotland had resolved from the petty kingdoms of early medieval Britain. The last Anglo-Saxon monarch (Harold II) was defeated and killed in the Norman invasion of 1066 and the English monarchy passed to the Norman conquerors. In the thirteenth century, the principality of Wales was absorbed by England, and the Magna Carta began the process of reducing the political powers of the monarch. The monarch is the "fount of honour", the source of all honours and dignities in the United Kingdom. n the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom legislative power is exercised by the two Houses of Parliament, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Executive power is exercised by the Prime Minister and the Cabinet. The Sovereign is the ceremonial Head of State. Oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen, and her lawful successors.[4] God Save the Queen (or God Save the King) is the British national anthem,[5] and the monarch appears on postage stamps, coins, and banknotes.[6] As a constitutional monarch, the Sovereign's role is largely limited to non-partisan functions, such as granting honours. This role has been recognised since the 19th century; the constitutional writer Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy in 1867 as the "dignified part" rather than the "efficient part" of government. n the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom legislative power is exercised by the two Houses of Parliament, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Executive power is exercised by the Prime Minister and the Cabinet. The Sovereign is the ceremonial Head of State. Oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen, and her lawful successors.[4] God Save the Queen (or God Save the King) is the British national anthem,[5] and the monarch appears on postage stamps, coins, and banknotes.[6] As a constitutional monarch, the Sovereign's role is largely limited to non-partisan functions, such as granting honours. This role has been recognised since the 19th century; the constitutional writer Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy in 1867 as the "dignified part" rather than the "efficient part" of government. Some of the government's executive authority is theoretically and nominally vested in the Sovereign, and is known as the Royal Prerogative. The monarch acts within the constraints of convention and precedent, only exercising prerogative on the advice of ministers responsible to Parliament, often through a body called the Privy Council.[13] In practice, prerogative powers are only exercised on the Prime Minister's advice—the Prime Minister, and not the Sovereign, exercises control. The monarch holds a weekly audience with the Prime Minister. The monarch may express his or her views, but, as a constitutional ruler, must ultimately accept the decisions of the Prime Minister and the Cabinet (providing they command the support of the House). In Bagehot's words: "the Sovereign has, under a constitutional monarchy ... three rights—the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, the right to warn."[14] Although the Royal Prerogative is extensive and parliamentary approval is not formally required for its exercise, it is limited. Many Crown prerogatives have fallen out of use or have been permanently transferred to Parliament. For example, the monarch cannot impose and collect new taxes; such an action requires the authorisation of an Act of Parliament. According to a parliamentary report, "The Crown cannot invent new prerogative powers", and Parliament can override any prerogative power by passing legislation. The Royal Prerogative includes the powers to appoint and dismiss ministers, regulate the civil service, issue passports, declare war, make peace, direct the actions of the military, and negotiate and ratify treaties, alliances, and international agreements. However, a treaty cannot alter the domestic laws of the United Kingdom; an Act of Parliament is necessary in such cases. The monarch is commander in chief of the Armed Forces (the Royal Navy, the British Army, and the Royal Air Force), accredits British High Commissioners and ambassadors, and receives diplomats from foreign states .It is the prerogative of the monarch to summon, prorogue and dissolve Parliament.The monarch is the "fount of honour", the source of all honours and dignities in the United Kingdom.
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