Syntactic process, their types and ways of realization
Typology 1. The principle terms and notions of contrastive typology Language is the most important and affective means of communication. It renders the meaning of the words, modal and emotional shades of meaning (the attitude of the speaker to what he is saying to his partner and to the situation of speech). Typology studies relevant features and general tendencies both in kindred (родинний) and non-kindred languages. It studies types of language and types of language structures. Аракін: Typology – is the science that studies types of language, it compares and correlates the system of languages or groups of languages, levels, sublevels, Microsystems (E.g. Levels include: phonemes, morphemes, words, phrases. Sublevels include: vowels and consonants; Microsystems include: back, front, diphtongues and monophtongues.). Aims of typology – Typology aims at establishing similar general linguistic categories with the classification of different types of language, irrespective of genealogical relationship of languages. It’s final aims are: 1) To identify and classify common and divergent (different) features of different languages; 2) To identify isomorphic regularities and allomorphic ( відмінні) singularities in the languages contrasted. (compared) 3) To establish the typical languages structures and types of languages; 4) To establish the universal phenomena in the language of the world. 2) Aspects of typology. General typology studies the most general, phonetic, morphological, lexical and syntactic features in languages which belong to different genetic groups. Special typology treats concrete languages, one of which as rule is the native tongue. Both general and special typologies study non-kindred than kindred languages. Historical typology studies the historical changes in the structure of different languages and compares these historical changes. The typology of the language levels studies and compares different levels of languages. Contrasted typology is based on the method of comparison or contrasting. It establishes the most general types of language on the basis of their dominant or common phonetical, morphological, lexical and syntactic features. Partial typology includes the typology of phonetic or phonological level units, typology of the morphological level units, typology of the lexical level units, and typology of the syntactic level units. Basic notions of typology are: 1) language type; 2) isomorphism, allomorphism; 3) language universalism; 4) modal language. 1) Language type – is a stable set of interrelated relevant features . (The category of case in U and R presupposes free word order. The absence of this category in E presupposes fixed word order.) There are 4 types of languages: • Inflectional (Ukr & Russ): 1. In these languages words are characterized by polysymantic morphemes: (E. g. щирий, відвертий – frank- ( the inflexion – ий is the polysymantic morpheme; the word is adjective, masculine, singular and nominative case). Besides in Ukrainian the root of the word doesn’t exist separately (e. g. щир, відверт - no exist). In English almost every word is a root. These languages are also called synthetic, because the affixes (suffixes, prefixes), the grammatical forms are built with the help of inflexion but not auxiliaries. ( допоміжний,додатковий) 2. Is characterized by agreement:(E. g. Цей гарний день - Цього гарного дня). 3. One and the same word cannot be used as notional and structural element( unlike in English) : (E.g. I have seen him – I have a dog.) 4. as for the sentence structure, they are mark by free word order. Subject + Predicate + Object - Я бачу вас Object + Predicate + Subject - Вас бачу Я Object + Subject + Predicate - Вас я бачу The word order is free, but the first is preferable (найкращий) 5. Parts of speech in these language are clearly opposed.(E. g. молоко – доїти; Milk – to milk) • Agglutinative (Turkey, Mongolian and Japanese). English is not a pure agglutinative type, but it has many features of agglutinative languages. 1. Words can take only monosemantic morphemes: (E.g. She worked hard – the inflexion – ed indicates the Past tense ) but – вона працювала) 2. word order is fixed,( Subject, Predicate, Object) but there are some examples of inversion. 3. there is no agreement: ( exceptions are: this town – these towns; this student – these students). 4. Parts of speech are not clearly opposed: (E.g. cold – adjective, noun); • Isolating (chinese) These languages have no word building morpheme, they are ch. by fixed word order, no agreement, and there is no opposition of parts of speech. • Incorporative (language of American Indians, chukot lang) There are no clearly defined words in the sentence. Each sentence incorporates word as its elements and present one big word. 2) Isomorphism and allomorphism. Isomorphism – similarity in the structure of language (I wiil read – Я буду читати) The category of number in U & E is an isomorphic feature. Besides isom. in E & U is the existence of consonants and vowels, assimilation, the categories of person, tense, parts of speech, the existence of sentences. Allomorphism –is dissimilarity of the language structure. The category of declension – is allomorphic feature. 3) Language universals – regularities, characteristic to all, or the majority of languages. The systems of vowels and consonants is present in all languages. Present tense form is in all languages as well. Universals common to all languages are called absolute (word stress). 4) Modal languages- To indentify isomorphic features it is necessary to compare them to something. The language with which other language under study is compared is called modal language. If you compare native and foreign languages, your native language will be a modal one. 2. The problem of the segmental level and its units The aim of typological phonetics is to identify and investigate the isomorphic and allomorphic features in the system of speech sounds in Ukr. and Eng.. The aim of Typology is to identify the systems of phonemes of the contrasted languages. Typological phonetics and phonology have a common subject matter (combinability and functioning)of sounds (phonemes) in words and syllables (segmental) level. And the super segmental level includes word stress, sentence stress and tones melody in syntagmas. Phoneme is an abstract linguistic unit, it combines all the features which the sound actually posses in speech. Sounds are called phones and they are manifestation of one and the same phoneme. Phoneme is a class of physically similar sounds which perform the same function. They may be variants of one and the same class (allophones). Phonemes and allophones are segmental units of speech. Difference languages have different phonological systems. Languages in which the system of consonant is more developed that the system of vowels are called consonantal languages (in Russ. there are 35 cons.) Phonemic stock of l-ges differs not only in quantity but in quality as well. In some l-ges there are long and short vowels (Eng) or long and short consonants (Ukr). This consonants (contrast) between two or more phonemes is called a phonological opposition (cat-cut, seat-sit). The functions of phonemes in the contrasted languages (include. Eng. and Ukr) are common. They are: 1. The constitutive (the ability of phonemes to constitute separate morphemes and words). E.g. in Ukr. the speech sounds [c], [i], [м] may constitute the words: сім, міс. 2. The distinguishing (the ability to differentiate the meaning of the words.) E.g. -coat, goat, boat; -жито, мито, сито; -тиск, диск, зиск, писк. 3. Word-stress and its functions in English and Ukrainian Super segmental means(word stress and intonation) together with segmental means (phonemes and allophones) form the phonological level of language. By stress or ascent – we mean prominence given to 1 syllable in a word or word combination. Like the syllable word stress belongs to absolute universals. It’s functions are: • Constitutive – due to which the syllables when arrange in a definite stress pattern form a definite word (conduct – conduct, present – present, пóра – порá, зáмок – замок ) • Distinctive – word stress helps to differentiate between word groups and words (bluebottle - волошка; blue bottle - голуба пляшка) Functions of stress in compared lang are different. In E word stress helps to differentiate between nouns and verbs. (report - report). But the number of such pairs is limited. There are about 135 such stress of words. In Ukrainian word stress helps to express different categorical meanings (case, number, gender – співак, співака, співаків) and gender, case and part of speech (дорóга – дорогá, свята – святá). Some polysemantic E&U words have primarily and secondary stress (opportunity, рано вранці). The number of words with 2 primarily stresses is much larger in E than in U. Due to the prefixes un-,in-,dis-,sub-, under-, and others, forming prominent syllables, which is not observed in U. Stress may be fixed if it occurs on a definite syl. or it can be moveable (can change it’s position). According to the place E stress is fixed it occurs on the initial syllable – power-powerful. In U&Russ the stress is movable (сирий – сирість - сируватий). Word stress in E and to a much greater extend in U is dynamic and shifting.It is used in diff paradigmatic forms of the same theme (paradigm – all gr forms of the same word (real – reality, transport – transportation - transporting). Stress in U is an important form building means expressing some morphological categories: • Plural form of many nouns, pronouns and numerals (читач – читачі, тисяча - тисячі) • Degrees of comparison of adjectives (молодий - молодший - наймолодший) • Different forms of adverbs (рано - раненько) • Different personal verb forms (пишу – писаний –написав) • Non-perfective and perfective verb forms (читати – прочитати, вивчати-вивчити) Universal by its nature and functions is also utterance-stress, which can be in the contrasted languages of 2 types: 1. Logical stress- points out a word or a word combination of more importance than others. (Шt was Оohn, not Jack) 2. Emphatic stress- expresses emotions and is much stronger than logical stress. Emotions may be positive (happiness, love, joy, luck, admiration) and negative (indignation, sadness). (How awful, what? – that is impossible.) 4. Historical outline of typological investigation 1) German school of Linguistics. In the 17 – 18 centuries European scientists pointed to the existence of some common features in different languages. Only the beginning of the 19 century with it’s historic and comparative method is characterized by a development of European Linguistics. One of the first linguist to have made a systematic approach to structurally different languages was Фредерік Шлегель (1772 – 1829). He singled out 2 clearly distinguished groups: 1) affixal languages (Turkic, Chinese); 2) inflexinal languages (French). Later this classification was perfected by his brother Орест Шлегель. On the basis of the same morphological criteria he singled out 3 groups: 1) languages without any grammatical structure; 2) the affixal languages; 3) the flexional languages. Вільям Гумбольд is considered to be the founder of typology (1764 – 1835). On the basis of morphological criteria , he classify all the languages in the following way: 1) isolating languages (like Chinese); 2) the agglutinative languages (like those of the Turkic family); 3) the flexional languages (Indo-European); 4) the incorporative languages of the American Indians. His followers in Linguistic were Франц Боб (1799 – 1867) and Орест Шляйхер (1821 – 1868). Франц Боб introduced a new approach to the typological investigation of the languages on the basis of their root structure. The “ family – tree” theory – “Schtaum – baum” was introduced by Шляйхер, who sort of language as a organism that can grow and decay, whose changes could be analyzed using the methods of the natural sciences. Typological investigations of the first part of 17 century were mostly focused on the morphological classification of the languages. The next step in the development of typology was made by Штайнгольд (1823 – 1899). The object of his studies was not word taken separately, he investigated the syntactic connection in different languages. So he switched from morphology to syntax. 2) American school of Linguistics. The 20 century typological investigations are characterized by some new approaches to the contrasted study of languages and their classification. American scientist Едвард Сапір is the founder of American structuralism. He was interested in Anthropology and Psychology. He emphasized close relation of language to human culture and society. Сапір dealt with the relationship between language and extra-linguistic reality (language and thought). All this made him one of the founders of ethnolinguistics. He is considered to be a founder of a new trend in typology. Some language distant in location could in the course of time accure common features. Сапір put forward 3 criteria in language classification: 1) the degree of cohesion between the root morphemes and the affixal morphemes; 2) the degree of synthesis (the ability of a word to combine and express different lexical and grammatical meanings) (as inflexional languages). 3) the nature of grammatical processes by means of which the morphemes are joined in the word( isolation, agglutination). In this way the linguists singled out 4 types of languages. Сапір was the first who treated a language material as a system. 3) Prague school of Linguistics. In 1926 a group of well known linguists established the Prague school of Linguistics. It is most representative people were a group of Russian linguists: Якобсон, Трубецькой, Ісаченко and others. The primary interest of them was phonological theory. The leading light in this domain was Russian’s prince Трубецкой, a professor in Viena. He was a founder of morpho-phonology. He worked out typology of phonemic and morpho-phonemic systems of languages based on opposition. He made an important contributions to the notion of the phoneme. Prague school phonology succeeded in placing the notion of the phoneme in the centre of Linguistic theory as one of the most fundamental units. Great research work in phonological typology was carried on by Ісаченко, who investigated the Slavonic languages on the qualitative representation of vowels and on the existence or non-existence palatalized consonants. As a result 2 types of language were singled out: 1) the vocalic languages; 2) the consonantal languages. The vocalic types of languages are: Serbian and Slovenian. Their features are: 1. some consonants have historically changes into vowels and some have become syllable phoneme; 2. languages in which there occurs an inclusion of vowels between consonants; 3. languages in which the double consonants have reduced to single consonants. The consonantal type of language have features: 1. the existence of the binary opposition of palatalized consonants werses non-palatalized one; 2. the loss of the syllable – forming consonants; 3. the retention (збереження) of the double consonants. 4) Russian school of Linguistics. In Russian typological investigations began in the end of 19 century and the representatives were Моор, Міщаніков (1883 – 1967). Міщаніков studied the syntactical relations (predicative, objective) in different languages. Міщаніков syntactical typology includes 3 classes: 1. passive structure languages (Chukot lang. and lang. of American Indians). They are characterized by incorporation, such syntactical structure were neither subject nor object have any definite grammatical form. They are united in a single complex word which is subordinated to a leading word, a verb. In this language it is impossible to differentiate between transitive and intransitive verbs; 2. ergative structure languages – are characterized by so-called negative construction. Predicate has dual syntactical connection with subject. It agrees with the subject and governs it at a time. The subject is used in special the so-called ergative case. We can come close to this phenomena in Russian sentences - Мальчика ошибало машиной. In this sentences the subject is not used in Nom. Case but in ergative case. 3. the nominative structure languages: they are characterized by the usage of subject in nominative case, irrespective of transitive or intransitive verb in the function of the predicate. He considered Indo-European, Turkic, Mongolian languages to be nominative structure languages. Among Ukrainian typologysts the most famous are Калинович, Жлутенко. 5. Typological characteristics of the super-segmental means. typology of intonation system Super-segmental means (word stress and intonation) together with segm. means (phonemes and allophones) form the phonological level of the l-ge. By stress or accent we mean prominence given to one syl. of a word or a word combination.Like the syl., word stress belongs to absolute universals.(пр. 3пит.) Intonation as well as word stress belongs to super-segmental means of l-ge. It’s one of the most important means of differentiation of meaning. The most important components of intonation in the contrasted languages are speech, melody, sent. and utter. stress. The main functions of intonation are isomorphic. They are: 1) sentence or utterance stress phoneme (forming); 2) sentence or utterance delimiting; 3) distinctive (helps to diff. diff. types of utterance); 4) attitudinal (to express diff. model and pragmatic meanings). Syntagma(sense group or intonation group) is the basic unit of into-logical level. This notion was introduced by Щерба (1978). Syntagma is word or group of words which form a shortest possible unit in a sent., from the point of view of meaning, gr. structure and information. It doesn’t have to coincide with a sent. it can coincide with a word. It has the following characteristics: - it has at least one accented word, which carries change in pitch (falling, rising, tone); - it is pronounced at a certain rate, things that are less important are pronounced faster; - it has a special voice quality – timbre. The elements of the pitch and stress pattern of the intonation group are as follows: the most important is a nuclear tone, a stressed syl. with a marked change in pitch. Post nuclear, unstressed and partial stressed syl. are called tail. So we can speak about two variants of terminal tone: - nuclear - nuclear + tail The terminal tone may be persisted by a scale, a serious of stressed and unstressed syllables beginning with the first stressed one. The first stressed syllable is called head, unstressed syllables before head are called pre-head. In Eng. the syst. of int. groups was worked out by Корнер and Арнольд. In Ukr. we don’t speak about some definite intonation groups, though some fundamental studies of intonation of diff. communicative types of sent. were made by Алла Бахтад (Kyiv, National University).
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Syntactic process, their types and ways of realization
Syntactic processes are various in contrasted languages and are realized only in word-groups and sentences. The realization of these processes may be realized by isomorphic and allomorphic ways, they are as follows: 1. Extensionis achieved in both contrasted languages through adding subordinate components to an element that is the head/nucleus, i.e. subordinating in the syntaxeme. Extension in English and Ukrainian syntaxemes may be achieved both by syndetic, i.e.explicit, synthetic or analytical means or (which is more often in English) asyndetically, i.e. only by way of placement of components. Eg: this book – these books, to see somebody - to see him.
As to their structure, word-groups can be unextended, i.e. consisting of two notional words (read well, nice flowers, good enough) and extended which consist of more than two notional words, e.g. to go to work every day. Extension may be achieved in English with the help of asyndetic clustering of nouns - For example: school library --» school library books --» new school library books --» school library books readers.
Ways of realisation of syntactic processes achieved through extension:
Apposition, Eg: a woman doctor, the city of Kyiv/London, Shevchenko the poet; Similarly in Ukrainian: жінка-лікар, місто Київ, Шевченко-поет.
Detachment is one more common way of external syntactic extension that is presumably of isomorphic nature in most languages. Detached (відокремленими) in English and Ukrainian may by any secondary part of the sentence and detachment is achieved through extension
by means of subordination. Fe: They're (Negroes) just like children Таж вони просто як діти – такі ж - just as easy-going, and always singing добродушні і завжди то співають,
and laughing ... (D. Parker) то сміються собі...
Specification. This kind of syntactic process presents a way of syntactic extension in English and Ukrainian which is achieved via a syntactic element/part of the sentence usually modified by one or more other complementing elements of the same nature and syntactic function. "I'm not very tall, just average." Я не дуже висока, якраз середня
Expansion Expansion is usually achieved by way of addition (termed so by Почепцов). The formed in this way (through addition) strings of components usually function as homogeneous parts of the sentence. For example, homogeneous subjects:
The police, the fishmonger, boys going to school, dozens of people Полісмени, торгівець рибою, учні, що йшли до школи, десятки людей
Representation (репрезентація) which is a particular process of syntactic substitution alien to the Ukrainian language. It represents a kind of reduction in which the component of a syntaxeme is used to present the content of the whole syntactic unit, which remains in the preceding syntaxeme but its meaning is implicitly represented by some element. For example: "I don't know if he's hungry, but I am." (I. Baldwin) Here the linking verb am in the closing co-ordinate clause (but I am) represents the whole subordinate clause "if he's hungry".
Contamination (суміщення) is process in which two syntaxemes merge into one predicative unit as in the following sentence: The moon rose red. This means: The moon rose + she was red. Or in Ukrainian: Наталка прибігла сердита, задихана. (О. Гончар), i.e. Наталка прибігла + (Наталка) була сердита + (На- талка) була задихана.
Compression represents a syntactic process which is closely connected with reduction and with the secondary predication complex, but it exists only in English. This syntactic process is most often observed in English with the nominative absolute participial constructions, Cf. He stood beside me in silence, his candle in his hand. (C. Doyle)
There exist four types of syntactic relations that are also realized in different languages partly via different means. These are:
1) predicative relations;
2) objective relations;
Attributive relations and
Various adverbial relations
a) primary predicative relations and b) secondary predicativerelations.
I. Primary predicationis universal. It finds its realization between the subject and predicate in any two-member sentence. Eg: "I never said I was a beauty"-he laughed
Secondary predicative relation is formed in English by verbals in connection with other nominal parts of speech. He stood by the creek and heard it ripple over the stones.
Objective relations. They are directed by the action of the transitive verb on some object, which may be either a life or lifeless component. Hence, the notions of seeing/hearing somebody or something of being given smth. by somebody, etc. are pertained to each single language and to all lan guages of the world irrespective of their structural/typological differenc es. Hence, depending on the concrete language, these relations may have different/unlike forms of expression i.e. realisation.(дати книжку пертові, give a book to peter)
Attributive relations.These are formed in all languages between adjuncts and head words (subordinating parts) of nominal word-groups.
Adverbial relationsin the contrasted languages are created both in co-ordinate and in subordinate word-groups to express different adverbial meanings. Co-ordinate word-groups expressing adverbial relations may be a) substantival: in winter and/or in summer (time) зимою та/чи літом; b) adverbial, quickly and well швидко й добре (manner or attendant circumstances); neither seldom nor often ні часто ні рідко (time or frequency), etc.
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