A notion of the phoneme. Three aspects of the phoneme
The problem of the definition of the phoneme. The development of the phoneme theory by Russian and foreign linguists. The phoneme as a unity of three aspects: 1) material, real and objective, 2) abstractional and generalized, 3) functional. A notion of the principal, or typical variant of the phoneme and its allophones. Classification of allophones.
The founder of the phoneme theory was the Russian scientist Бодуэн де Куртене, a founder of the Kazan linguistic school. He stated that a speech unit is a fictitious unit, an invention of the scientists. What really exists and what is being constantly renewed in the individual mind is the perception of a sound. It is a complex perception of the articulatory movements and of the muscular sensations connected with them together with the resulting acoustic impressions. This complex perception is called the phoneme.
Developing his ideas Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba separated phonetics from chronology. He stated that sounds are not only articulatory and acoustic units but also they possess function properties. He also stated that in actual speech we utter a much greater variety of sounds that we are aware of. In every language these sounds are united in a comparatively small number of sound types which serve the purpose of social intercourse. Such sound types are called phonemes.
Linguists haven’t yet arrived at the definition of the phoneme acceptable to official. There are several conceptions of the phoneme currently among Russian and foreign linguists and none of these definitions are quite satisfied to read from all points of view. The difficulty of giving such a definition lies in the fact that the phoneme has several aspects and functions. There are other opinions on the nature of the phoneme. Ferdinand de Sauseur viewed phonemes as the sum of acoustic impressions and articulatory movements. His approach is called obstractional.
Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetskoy (the Prague linguistic school) defined the phoneme as a unity of phonologically relevant features. He wrote that when the phoneme is neutralized it becomes an archi-phoneme or a unity of relevant features common to two phonemes, thus it is an abstraction.
Daniel Johns, head of the London school of phonology, defined phonemes as a family of sounds as the sum of all its allophones. Analogous definition of the phoneme is given by some American descriptivists who state that a phoneme is a class of phonetically similar sounds.
The phoneme theory in America was developed by structuralists (Bloomfield) who defined a phoneme as a minimal unit of distinctive sound features (an abstractional fiction).
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The representative of the Copen-Hagen trend treat all the linguistic problems as algebraic. Roman Osipov. Jackobson. and Moris Halle. As can be seen from the presiding definition of the phoneme they either disregard its function or underestimate.
Бодуэн де Куртене’s disciple Scherba developed his ideas further, he was the 1st who defined the phoneme as a real independent distinctive unit which manifests itself in the form of its allophones.
Scherba’s disciple Vasilyev gives the following definition of the phoneme: the phoneme is the smallest (further indivisible) lang unit (sound type) that exists in the speech of all the members of a given lang community as such speech sounds which are capable of distinguishing one word from another word or one grammatical form of a word from another grammatical form of the same word. Speech sound can perform this distinguish. sound only in this opposition. (bed and bad) they are distinguished by the raw of sounds e and a occurring in the same position by the context) The different consonants s and z differentiate such words as advice and advise, while the consonants s and t differentiate the grammatical forms of such words as asked-asks.
Вячеслав Ал. Vasilyev states that a phoneme is a unity of 3 aspects:
material, real and objective;
abstractional and generalized;
functional.
The phoneme has a material aspect in the sense that it exists in the form of articulatory and acoustic definite speech sounds – its allophones. The phoneme is a linguistic reality because phonemes exist in actual speech. It is also objective, i.e. it exists independently of the will of individual persons. presence. An individual person of the community can’t invent a speech sound or abolish it at a will.
The 2nd aspect of the phoneme consists in its abstructed and generalized character. The 2d aspect is reflected in the definition of the phoneme as a lang unit. Each unit of the lang – the phoneme, the morpheme, the word, the sentence etc. – is an abstraction from and a generalization of actual utterances. Language itself is an abstraction from and a generalization of speech, while speech is the reality of language. All the members of the language community as a result of much practice in using their mother tongue don’t notice differences between similar speech sounds in different phonetic context. The 3rd aspect (functional) is reflected in the definition of the phoneme as the smallest language unit capable of differentiating words and their grammatical form. It is the principal function of the phoneme. A phoneme can perform its distinctive function if it is opposed to another phoneme in the same position. Another function of the phoneme is constitutive. There may be 3 types: 1) morpheme constitutive; 2) word constitutive; 3) sentence constitutive. The third function is called recognitive or identificatory. It consists in making words with their grammatical forms and whole sentences easily recognisible and intelligible as the result of the use of the right allophones in the right places.
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The phoneme has 3 functions:
1) constitutive – it constitutes morphemes, words, phrases.
E.g. dreamer – dreaming.
2) distinctive – a phoneme is opposed to another in the same position.
E.g. pen - ten
3) recognitive – it consists in making words with their grammatical forms and whole sentences easily recognizable and intelligible as the result of the use of the right allophones in the right places.
The actual speech sounds pronounced by the speaker or reader are variants of allophones and phonemes. It means that in speech we pronounce , for instance, not only [t] which is a forelingual apical plosive voiceless sound. But a much greater variety of the [t] phoneme. In the word twins [t] is rounded under influence of the [w] sound.
In the word teeth [t] is pronounced with spread lips under the influence of long [e]. In the word try [t] is post-alveole under the influence of the [r] phoneme which follows it. In the word eight [t] is dental because the influence of the interdental [th].
That variant of the phoneme which is described as the most representative and free from the influence of the nabouring phonemes is considered to be typical or principal. For example, when the phoneme [t] is described in practical teaching, its principal variant is characterized as forelingual apical acclusive voiceless fortes.
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To distinguish principal variants of phonemes from their allophones in writing two types of brackets are used. Slund like for the principal variant of the phoneme and square for allophonic variants. Allophones are subdivided into two groups: positional and combinatory. Positional allophones are used in certain position traditionally according to the orthoepic norms of the language. The English (l) phoneme sound is always clear in the initial position and dark in the terminal position (live and feel).Combinatory allophones appear as the result of assimilation, adaptation, accommodation, when one phoneme influences another (dental variants of the English forelingual phonemes its t,d,n,l which abdue to the assimilated influence of the following interdental constituents. (eighth or though).
Changes in the pronunciation of the English Vowels and Consonants in present-day English (Heterogeneity of pronunciation on the territory of Great Britain. The orthoepic norm and three main types of pronunciation: conservative, general, advanced. Changes in the quality of English vowels and consonants. Combinative changes. Changes in length.)
The orthoepic norm. One of the types of pronunciation which is spoken by the educated people in the capital is recognized as the orthoepic norm. The orthoepic norm is the standard pronunciation adopted by native speakers as the right and proper way of speaking. It is used by the most educated part of the population. The orthoepic norm is based on the variants of pronunciation that are widely used in actual speech, that reflect the main phonetic tendencies and are considered to be acceptable by the educated. Thus, wide currency, conformity to the main phonetic tendencies and social acceptability are the three main conditions that are necessary to be accepted as a norm . The orth.norm must always include a set of stylistic variants of pronunciation. R.P. was accepted as the phonetic norm about a century ago. It is based on the Southern English regional type of pronunciation.
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We may state that received pronunciation is a regionless aspect within Britain, i.e. if speakers have it you cannot tell which area of Britain they come from. Only 3-5 % of the population of England speak Received pronunciation. British phoneticians estimate that nowadays RP is not homogeneous.
Gimson suggests that it is convenient to distinguish 3 main types within RP:
1) the conservative RP forms used by the older generation, and by certain profession and social groups;
2) the general RP forms most commonly in use and adopted by the BBC;
3) the advanced RP forms mainly used by young people of exclusive social groups, mostly of the upper classes but also for prestige value in certain professional circle.
Considerable changes are observed in the sound system of present-day Eng. Changes in vowels [ai], [au] are smooth when they are followed by a schwa vowel [ə].
E.g. tower fire
CRP [tauə] [faiə]
GRP [taə] [faə]
ARP [ta:] [fa:]
Combinative changes:
It is common knowledge that when sounds are in company they influence each other. They are called combinative. They occur only in certain phonetic context.
j + u is pronounced either [ju:] or [u:]. (suite, student, super). The tendency is for middle-aged and younger speakers to omit [j] after s before long [u:]. The same after l.
There is a tendency for short vowels to be lengthened in any position: [i] in big, his; [u] in good; [a] in come; …
Changes in consonant quality.
In rapid speech [h] is lost in form-words. E.g. He wants her to come.
Initial [m] or [hw] some CRP speakers pronounce words like hwy, hwich, hwen. Loss of final [ŋ] – [in] instead of [iŋ] like sittin’, lookin’.
Glottal stop [?] can appear as a realization of syllable final [t] before a consonant: [no? kwait], and in certain confident … [bo?ks], [si?mpli]. Intrusive [r] – by analogy with linking [r], [r] is inserted before a following vowel even though there is no letter ‘r’ in spelling. ARP speakers have it: [an aidiərof]. Nowadays in colloquial speech there is a tendency towards reduction, elision and assimilation. E.g. c’m on, sorry ‘bout that, whodunnit stories, I dunno, lemme see. Tj, dj, sj are pronounced as tf, dg, f: actual, graduate, issue. Then there is a tendency for all unstressed vowels to be nearer to the schwa vowel [ə]: behind [bəhaind].
Sunday – [ei], often – [often – ofen
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