Sentences can be classified according to their structural properties
The elementary sentence coincides structurally with the so called unexpanded simple sentence, a monopredicative sentence, which includes only obligatory nominative parts. The expanded simple sentence includes also some optional parts, i.e. supplementive modifiers, which do not violate the syntactic status of the simple sentence, i.e. do not make it into a composite or semi-composite sentence.
The two principal parts of the sentence, the subject and the predicate, with the subordinate secondary parts attached to them are the two constitutive members or “axes” of the sentence: the subject group (the subject “axis”) and the predicate group (the predicate “axis”). On the basis of their representation in the outer structure of the sentence, sentences are subdivided into complete sentences and incomplete sentences: in complete sentences both the subject group and the predicate group are present; they are also called “two-member sentences” or “two-axis sentences”; if only one axis is expressed in the outer structure of the sentence, the sentence is defined as incomplete; it is also called “one-member sentence”, “one-axis sentence”.
One-member sentences are further divided into:
a) nominal or "naming" sentences;
B) infinitival sentences.
Nominal sentences name a person or thing. The main member in such
sentences is expressed by a noun.
e.g. Winter. Snow.
The main member of infinitival sentences is expressed by an infinitive. Infinitival sentences are fairly common in spoken English and literary prose. Like other units of predicative value, they can communicate not only their denotative meaning but also the connotative suggestions of various circumstances of their use.
e.g. To talk like that to your own mother! To have eloped with a butler!
One-member sentences should be kept apart from two-member sentences with either the subject or the predicate omitted, i. e. from elliptical sentences. An elliptical sentence is a sentence in which one or more word-forms in the principal positions are omitted. Ellipsis here refers only to the structural elements of the sentence, not the informational ones. This means that those words can be omitted, because they have only grammatical, structural relevance, and do not carry any new relevant information.
an elliptical sentenceis a sentence with one or more of its parts left out, which can be unambiguously inferred from the context. The main sphere of elliptical sentences is dialogue.
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e.g. Where are you going? – To the movies.
In terms of structure the following types of elliptical sentences are singled out:
a) omission of the subject: e.g. Hope to see you soon. b) omission of the predicate in patterns with there is, there are, e. g. Too many mistakes, I am afraid. c) omission of auxiliary, copulative and other function verbs, e. g. You like it here? d) omission of the subject and auxiliary verb, e. g. Hear me? e) omission of the subject and the copula-verb, e. g. Glad to see you again.
Paradigmatics of the simple sentence.
Paradigmatics of the simple sentence is closely connected with the idea of the kernel sentence and sentence derivation, which was introduced by N.Chomsky. He believed that all sentences generated in speech (that is surface structures) are derived from or can be reduced to some limited number of basic syntactic structures which he called “kernel”. The sentence “He did the job carefully and thoroughly” can be reduced to the kernel sentence “He did the job”. The sentence “I saw him come” is derived from two kernel sentences “I saw him” and “He came”.
The derivation of sentences out of kernel ones can be analyzed as a process falling into sets of transformational steps:
1. “morphological arrangement” of the sentence, i.e. morphological changes expressing syntactically relevant categories, such as the predicate categories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice, mood,
e.g.: He writes. He will be writing/would write/ has written;
2. “functional expansion” includes various uses of functional words,
e.g.: He regretted the trip. He seemed to regret the trip;
3. “substitution”, e.g.: The children ran out of the house.
They ran out of the house. I want a different book, please. I want a different one, please;
4.“deletion”– elimination of some elements of the sentence in various contextual conditions, e.g.: Would you like to go out? To go out?
5. “positional arrangement”, e.g.: A loud bang came from there. From there came a loud bang;
6.“intonational arrangement”, e.g.: They should do it on their own. They? Should do it on their own?
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Thus, the simple sentence is a monopredicative unit. The grammatical structure of a simple sentence is mainly determined by its syntactic pattern which presents a system of functionexpressing positions, defined by the syntactic valency of the verb predicate.
The complex sentence. The definition of the complex sentence. The notion of a polypredicative subordination. The principle and subordinate clauses (slot sentences and insert-sentences). Formative words used to connect the principal and subordinate clauses. Merger principal clauses and non-merger principal clauses. The principles of classification of subordinate clauses: Functional types of subordinate clauses; Categorial types of subordinate clauses.
The complex sentence is a polypredicative (with two or more predicative lines expressed) construction built up on the principle of subordination (hypotaxis). It is derived from 2 or more base sentences one of which performs the role of a matrix in relation to the others, the insert sentences. One becomes the principal clause and the other its subordinate clause (insert sentence). The principle and the subordinate clauses form a semantico-syntactic unity. It cannot be destroyed without affecting the structure of the sentence. The existence of either of clauses is supported by the existence of the other, e.g.: He looked as though he were looking at an absolute stranger.
The subordinate clause is joined to the principal clause either by a subordinating connector (subordinator) or asyndetically. Sometimes asyndetic connection is called zero subordinator. In this way the meaningful function of the asyndetic connection is stressed.
Subordination is a way of linking grammatical elements (here: different predicative lines) –это я сама придумала
The formative words linking the parts of a compound sentence fall into the following types:
1) coordinative conjunctions;
2) conjunctive adverbs;
3) fixed prepositional phrases.
Coordinative conjunctionsare rather few in number: and, but, or, yet, for.
Coordinate connectors can establish different semantic relations between clauses. Coordinate sentence linkers can be grouped in the following way:
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1. Copulative, connecting two members and their meanings, often coming in pairs, then called correlatives: and; both... and; equally... and; alike... and; at once... and; not... nor for neither, or and neither); not (or never)... not (or nor)... either; neither... nor, etc.
2. Disjunctive, connecting two members, but disconnecting their meaning, the meaning in the second member excluding that in the first: or, and in questions whether... or with the force of simple or; or... either; either... or, etc., the disjunctive adverbs else, otherwise, or... or, or... else, in older English other else.
3. Adversative, connecting two members, but contrasting their meaning: but, but then, only, still, yet, and yet, however, on the other hand, again, on the contrary, etc.
4. Causal, adding an independent proposition explaining the preceding statement, represented only by the single conjunction: for:
The brook was very high, for a great deal of rain had fallen over night.
5. Illative, introducing an inference, conclusion, consequence, result: namely, therefore, on that account, consequently, accordingly, for that reason, so, then, hence, etc.
6. Explanatory, connecting words, phrases or sentences and introducing an explanation or a particularisation: namely, that is, that is to say, or, such as, as, like, for example, for instance, say, let us say, etc.
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