Tropes Based on the Interaction of Two Logical Meanings
Metaphor is a trope, which means transference of some quality from one object to another. It is based on the simultaneous realization of primary dictionary and contextually imposed meanings. Metaphor is a method of description, which identifies one thing with another.
There are three types of transference in Metaphor:
· Transference of the name of one object to another
E.g. He was already familiar with the geography of the house.
· Transference of the name of the action
E.g.He shot after her. /He suddenly started running very fast/
E.g. The time was bleeding for her. /went very slowly/
· Transference of the typical features of one thing to another
E.g. The yellow pancake was high in the sky. /about the sun/
E.g. The old butterfly was sitting in her rocky-chair on the patio. /about an elderly lady/
Metaphor is based not so much on similarity of the two objects/actions/features, but on their identity. Metaphors, like all SDs, can be classified according to the degree of unexpectedness. Thus, metaphors which are absolutely unexpected (quite unpredictable) are called genuine; while those which are commonly used in speech and therefore fixed in dictionaries, are called trite (or dead).
Trite metaphors are sometimes filled with new vigour. This is done by supplying the central image created by the metaphor with additional words, bearing some reference to the main word. Such metaphors are called sustained or prolonged.
E.g. Mr. Pickwick bottled up his vengeance and corked it down. (Ch. Dickens)
The verb to bottle up is explained in dictionaries as follows: “to keep in check”, “to conceal, to restrain”. The metaphor in the word can hardly be felt, but it is revived by the direct meaning of the verb to cork down/.
E.g. Mr. Dombey’s cup of satisfaction was so full at this moment, however, that he felt he could afford a drop or two of its content, even to sprinkle on the dust in the by-path of his little daughter. (Ch. Dickens)
The principal metaphor may be called the central image of the sustained metaphor and the other words that bear reference to the central image – contributory images. Thus in the example given the word cup is the central image, while its contributory images are full, drop, content and to sprinkle.
Metaphor is usually expressed by verbs, nouns, adverbs, etc.
Metonymy is a trope based on a different type of the interaction between the dictionary and contextual meanings, a relation based not on identification, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts, which these two meanings represent.
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There are several types of association in metonymy:
· The name of the container stands for the name of the thing contained
E.g. Will you have another glass? /of wine/
E.g.He drank another bottle. /of beer/
· The name of the material stands for the name of the thing made of it.
E.g.Your satin needs ironing. /the outfit made of satin/
· The name of the creator stands for the name of the thing made by him
E.g. She has bought two Glazunovs. /pictures made by this painter/
· The name of the symbol stands for the name of the thing symbolized.
E.g. He made his way through the perfume and conversation. /through the crowd of perfumed and talking people/
· The name of the instrument stands for the name of the action it performs
E.g. Well, Mr. Weller, you’re a good whip and can do what you like with your horses. (Ch. Dickens)
· The name of the concrete thing stands for the name of an abstract notion
E.g. Elisabeth II is the crown of Britain. /the queen/
· The name of the part stands for the whole, and vice versa (synecdoche)
E.g. She saw around her… multitudes of violently red lips, powdered cheeks and cold hard eyes.
Metonymy is usually expressed by nouns. It differs from metaphor in the way it is decoded. In metaphor one image excludes the other, while in metonymy it does not.
Irony is a SD based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings – dictionary and contextual, which stand in opposition to each other.
E.g. It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one’s pocket.
The word delightful acquires the meaning quite the opposite to its primary dictionary meaning, i.e. “unpleasant”, “not delightful”. The word containing irony is strongly marked by intonation. Irony is used to express irritation, regret, pity, mockery, etc. Bitter socially or politically aimed irony is called sarcasm.
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