Grammatical metaphor and types of grammatical transposition
We know that lexical metaphor is based on the transfer of the name of one object on to another due to some common ground. The same mechanism works in the formation of a grammatical metaphor.
Linguistic units, such as words, possess not only lexical meanings but also grammatical ones that are correlated with extra-linguistic reality.
A grammatical form, as well as a lexical unit possesses a denotative and a connotative meaning. There are at least three types of denotative grammatical meanings. Two of these have some kind of reference with the extra-linguistic reality and one has zero denotation, i. e. there is no reference between the grammatical meaning and outside world.
Denotative meanings show what this or that grammatical form designates but they do not show how they express the same relation. However a grammatical form may carry additional expressive information, it can evoke associations, emotions and impressions. It may connote as well as denote. Connotations aroused by a grammatical form are adherent subjective components, such as expressive or intensified meaning, emotive or evaluative colouring. The new connotative meaning of grammatical forms appears when we observe a certain clash between form and meaning or deviation in the norm of use of some forms. The stylistic effect produced is often called grammatical metaphor.
According to Shendels we may speak of grammatical metaphor when there is a transposition (transfer) of a grammatical form from one type of grammatical relation to another. In such cases we deal with a redistribution of grammatical and lexical meanings that create new connotations.
Types of grammatical transposition
Generally speaking we may distinguish 3 types of grammatical transposition.
1. The first deals with the transposition of a certain grammar form into a new syntactical distribution with the resulting effect of contrast. The so-called 'historical present' is a good illustration of this type: a verb in the Present Indefinite form is used against the background of the Past Indefinite narration. The effect of vividness, an illusion of «presence», a lapse in time into the reality of the reader is achieved.
Jimmy comes in one day with his motorbike and side-car and asks for some petrol. He comes up and looks at it in the way he had. (Waugh)
2. The second type of transposition involves both—the lexical and grammatical meanings. The use of the plural form with a noun whose lexical denotative meaning is incompatible with plurality
(abstract nouns, proper names) may serve as an apt example.
The look on her face... was full of secret resentments, and longings, and fears. (Mitchell)
1. Transposition of classifying grammatical meanings, that brings together situationally incompatible forms—for instance, the use of a common noun as a proper one. The effect is personification of inanimate objects or antonomasia (a person becomes a symbol of a quality or trait—Mr. Know-All, Mr. Truth, speaking names).
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