Types of lexical repetitions.
There are some devices based on r-n of some idea:synonymical r-n-the rep-on of the same idea by using synonymous words and phrases which by adding a slightly dif. shapes of m-g intensify the ut-ce;2 terms to show attitude to all kinds of synonymous r-n: 1)pleonasm -the use of more words in the s-ce then necessary to express the m-g), 2)tautology -the r-n of the same word/phrase or the same idea or statement in other words often in dif. gram.forms).
15. Parallelism and devices based on it
Assimilation or even identity of two or more neighbouring sentences (or verse lines) is called ‘parallelism’ (parallel constructions). As a matter of fact, parallelism is a variety of repetition, but not a repetition of lexically identical sentences, only repetition of syntactical constructions. Parallelism contributes to rhythmic and melodic unification of adjacent sentences. But not only that. As everywhere in language, semantics is the predominant factor. It is only with regard to lexical meanings that the constructive function of parallelism can be defined. It serves either to emphasize the repeated element, or to create a contrast, or else underlines the semantic connection between sentences.
Parallel constructions are formed by the same syntactical pattern closely following one another. Par. c-s effect the rhythmical org-n of the paragraph.It is widely used in oratorical speech. 2 types of parallelism:
a) complete(the str-re of the whole sent-ce is repeated),b)partial(some parts of the successive s-ces/clauses are repeated)
- the reversed parallel constr-n(chiasmus)(I know the world the world knows me)
The 2nd part of ch-s – the inversion of the 1st construction.
16. Ellipsis and one-member sentences
E. is a typical phenomenon in conversation, arising out of the situation. Ellipsis, when used as a stylistic device, always imitates the common features of colloquial language, where the situation predetermines not the omission of certain members of the sentence, but their absence.
It would perhaps be adequate to call sentences lacking certain members ‘incomplete sentences’, leaving the term ‘ellipsis’ to specify structures where we recognize a digression from the traditional literary sentence structure.
We have agreed to term one-member sentences those sentences which have no separate subject and predicate but one main part only instead (see p. 190). Among these there is the type of sentence whose main part is a noun (or a substantivised part of speech), the meaning of the sentence being that the thing denoted by the noun exists in a certain place or at a certain time. Such sentences are frequent, for example, in stage directions of plays. A few examples from modern authors will suffice: Night. A lady's bed-chamber in Bulgaria, in a small town near the Dragoman Pass, late in November in the year 1885. (SHAW) The sixth of March, 1886. (Idem) The landing dock of the Cunard Line. (FITCH) Living room in the house of Philip Phillimore. (L. MITCHELL) Compare also the following passage from a modern novel: No birds singing in the dawn. A light wind making the palm trees sway their necks with a faint dry formal clicking. The wonderful hushing of rain on Mareotis. (DURRELL) Such sentences bear a strong resemblance to two-member sentences having a present participle for their predicate, which we have considered on p. 202 ff. It is the context that will show to which of the two types the sentence belongs. In some cases the difference between them may be vague or even completely neutralised. There are some more types of one-member clauses and sentences. Let us consider a few examples of the less common varieties. And what if he had seen them embracing in the moonlight? (HUXLEY) The main clause, if it is to be taken separately, contains only the words and what...? It is clear, however, that the sentence And what?, if at all possible, would have a meaning entirely different from that of the sentence as it stands in Huxley's text. Be that as it may, the clause and what is clearly a one-member clause. A different kind of one-member clause is seen in the following compound sentence: A good leap, and perhaps one might clear the narrow terrace and so crash down yet another thirty feet to the sunbaked ground below. (HUXLEY) The first clause in its conciseness is very effective. These are the thoughts of a young man standing on a hill and looking down a steep ravine. The meaning is of course equivalent to that of a sentence like It would be enough to make a good leap, etc. But the first clause as it stands in the text is certainly a one-member clause, as every addition to it would entirely change its structure. A special semantic type of one-member clauses is characterised by the following structure: "predicative + adjective expressing emotional assessment + noun or clause expressing what is assessed by the adjective", for instance, Strange how different she had become — a strange new quiescence. (LAWRENCE) The main clause might of course have been a two-member one: It was strange how different she had become... but this variant would be stylistically very different from the original. It is also evident that this type of sentence is limited to a very small number of adjective predicatives. Imperative sentences with no subject of the action mentioned are also to be classed among one-member sentences, e. g. Get away from me! (M. MITCHELL) Fear not, fair lady! (Idem) "Don't tell him anything," she cried rapidly. (Idem) It would not, however, be correct to say that imperative sentences must necessarily have this structure. Occasionally, in emotional speech, they may have a subject, that is, they belong to the two-member type, as in the following instance: Don't you dare touch me! (Idem)
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17- Inversion. Transposition
a)inversion (the violation of traditional word order which doesn’t alter the m-g of the s-ce,but gives it an addit./emotional coloring. I-n is used to single out some parts f the s-ce & heighten the emotional tension. Stylistic inversion aims at attaching logical stress or additional emotional colouring to the surface meaning of the utterance. Therefore a specific intonation pattern is the inevitable satellite of inversion. (5 models of inversion). Inversion as a stylistic device is always sense-motivated. There is a tendency to account for inversion in poetry by rhythmical considerations. This may sometimes be true, but really talented poets will never sacrifice sense for form and in the majority of cases inversion in poetry is called forth by considerations of content rather than rhythm.
b)isolated members of a s-ce(detachment)( based on singling out a secondary member of the s-ce with the help of inton-n & punct-n. The word order isn’t violated,but second members obtain there own stress & inton-n as they are detached from the rest of the s-ce by: commas, dashes,full stops. I have to beg u for money. Daily. Detachment is used to give prominence to some words to help the author laconically draw the reader’s attention to a certain detail. A variant of detached construction is parenthesis.
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18 The main concept here(DS) – foregrounding (f). The idea of f. app-d 1st in the Prague School. In foregrounding the reader's attention is attracted to the formal means through which the meaning is conveyed, and the interpretation of sense demands some creative effort on the part of the reader. The notion of f. is more comprehensive than that of a stylistic device or trope. F. - a special contextual organ-n focusing on reader's attention on some elements of the contents of the message and establishing meaningful relations b/w juxtaposed or distant elements of the same or different levels and the text as a whole. Foregrounding includes: coupling, convergence, defeated expectancy, salient feature, strong position. They differ from expressive means known as tropes and stylistic figures bec they possess a generalizing force and function and provide structural cohesion of the text and the hierarchy of its meanings and images, bringing some to the fore and shifting others to the background.
19 Coupling - a semantically relevant appearance of equivalent elements in equivalent positions in the text. C-ng was suggested and worked out by the American scholar S. Levin. The possibilities of c-ng are almost unlimited. C-ng is esp pronounced in poetry, in proverbs, in aphorisms. Ex: "Lend your money and lose your friend". The equivalence of positions is syntactic and the equivalence of el-nts is lexical and phonetical, it stresses the ironical idea that lending money to friends is a double loss because demanding one's money back is futile and will make the friend angry. C-ng has many points of similarity with parallelism but paral-sm is above all associated with syntactic repetition, and in c-ng other types of positional equivalence are also possible.
In convergence several stylistic devices converge to produce one striking effect, to create one image or to fulfill some other function together. It’s very interesting bec in it the relationship and dif-ce b/w fore-ing and stylistic devices is most transparent. In "A Portrait of the artist as a young man" Joyce depicts his protagonist in the state of exaltation: His cheeks were aflame, his body was aglow, his limbs were trembling. On and on he strode far out over the sands singing wildly to the sea, crying to greet the life that had cried to him." The reader feels how excited the hero is as he perceives the anaphoric parallel constr-ns, high-flown archaic metaphoric synonyms aflame and aglow used as epithets, but insistent repetition of on, rendering unstoppable energy of motion, metaphorical personification of life - all these make the reader share the hero's feelings.
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20 In Defeated Expectancy(DE) some el-nt of the text receives prominence due to an interruption in the pattern of predictability. An unexpected change may be created due to some combination of extra irregularity. The low predictability el-nts disturb the pattern which the reader has been conditioned to expect. This causes a temporary sense of disorientation compelling the reader's attention. DE - mostly characteristic of humour and satire. Ex: A drunken G.I. shouts to his companion: "I cannot take another minute of it! The Army is brutal, dehumanized and full of morons. It's time something was done. When I get back to the barracks, I'll write my mother about it." The 1st 3 sent-s make the reader expect that the soldier is ready for some action of revolt, but not to complain to his mother, this is unexpected and amusingly childish. The decision is made prominent being abruptly detached from the rest of the context.
21. Strong position. The beginnings and the endings. The beginning is very important — the reader tries to guess what will follow. The ending draws a line for all versions and prognoses. It’s also imp-nt to study the connection b/w the beginning and the ending. The title is also imp-nt. Strong position is a sort of a trademark of the author.
J. Austen:a certain system in titles (Sense and Sensibility; Pride and Prejudice)
22. There are 2 main directions of analysis of belles-lettres speech.
1st pattern – hypothetically singles out main idea or theme of the whole. Then lexical, syntactical, morphological and phonetical parts of a text are singled out, those help to confirm, make more precise or alternate the initial hypothesis. In the latter case the hypothesis is changing and the procedure takes place again.
2nd method is opposite – attention is aimed at some evident formal peculiarity or a detail of a text, for instance – numerous repetition of some word or a phrase, extensive metaphor, unexpected word order, group of sentences of one type (e.g. exclamatory). When such a peculiarity is revealed, a researcher looks for explanation, comparing it with other peculiarities, checking whether this foregrounding is assisted by other means, and in the end outlines main idea and theme. Then, this first striking detail and other peculiarities are examined from the point of view of their place in the whole.
23. Intertextuality
Intertextuality is the shaping of texts' meanings by other texts. It can include an author’s borrowing and transformation of a prior text or to a reader’s referencing of one text in reading another. The term “intertextuality” has, itself, been borrowed and transformed many times since it was coined by poststructuralist Julia Kristeva in 1966.
The theory of intertextuality that was originally based on Bakhtin’s ideas nowadays falls into a variety of, sometimes, opposing branches. General model of intetextuality combines Bakhtin’s dialogism and the classical postulates of hermeneutics
Classification of the intexts
1. Intexts may be linguistic, or code, and textual.
Linguistic or code intexts are those of specific vocabulary and gramma structures that are associated with concrete situations and come in contrast with the accepting context.
2. Textual intexts differ in their length. They can represent novels, letters, diaries, or, which is more common, quotations and separate allusions.
3. ”Another voice” may really belong to another author, as it happens in epigraphs and quotations. It may be fictitious, i.e. belong to the same author but be given under a different name. In this case it is possible to speak about inner and outer intertextuality.
4. The presence of an intext is noticed by the reader as it violates the succession, cohesion and style unity of the text. It is also noticeable by means of special markers that may be or different character. If the author believes in the reader’s erudition and wit, the original source of the quotation is not named. He can make various hints, involving the reader into a certain game, thus increasing his interest. In other cases the source is mentioned in this or that way.
5. Texts, which are the mostreferred to in literature, we’ll call precedental texts. The easier the quotation is recognized, the better it serves its stylistic function. These most common sources of such quotations and allusions are The Bible, the works of the world famous writers: W. Shakespeare, Dante, Servantez and Goethe. In Russian literature – Pushkin, Gogol, Griboyedov and Dostoyevsky.
6. The function and the meaning of an intext depend upon the place they occupy in the text. Even the title may be a quotation. In this case it influences the interpretation of the whole text. The same is true about the epigraph. Such intexts reflect the topic of the text, the evaluation of the described events and characters. Inside the text inclusions may be of episodic character.
7. The functions and the meaning of intexts are in many respects similar to those of foregrounding, as described by decoding stylistics. They focus the reader’s attention on the key points of the narration increase the expressiveness, and perform some other functions, i.e. emotive, satirical and evaluative.
8. The relationship with the initial text is of special importance. It may be quoted with piety thus giving the text a more high-flown character. It may be, on the contrary, refuted, parodied, quoted ironically. Associations with the initial context may be of suggestive character, and at the same time may depend upon the reader’s thesaurus, his general knowledge.
9. Quotations differ in the degree and character of formal and semantic transformation. To understand the role of a quotation in a text, the reader compares its form and meaning in the initial and the accepting texts, thus defining the character of its transformation.
10. The meaning and the functions of an inclusion may be influenced by the genres of the initial and the accepting texts. The inclusion of the letters, diaries, songs and poems may be important for the composition, but it may perform some other functions as well.
11. The inclusion of texts from other semiotic systems (verbal descriptions of the wors of art: paintings, music, etc.) presents a specific kind of intertextuality.
12. Linguistic or code intertextuality may consist in the usage of foreign word in quotations as well as in the speech of the characters. Quotations may be given in the original.
We should be mainly focused on the identification of the inclusion, establishing its source and regarding the intext as a dual phenomenon, in which the initial and the accepting contexts coexist and cooperate.
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