Special colloquial words
The word stock
Of any language can be roughly divided into an uneven group, different from each other by the sphere of this possible use. It is divided into 3 min layers:
1. The literary layer
2. The neutral layer
3. The colloquial layer
It gain the background of neutral words, we can establish 2 major groups. There are standard colloquial and standard literary. As for literary words they served to satisfied communicative demands of official, scientific, poetic massages. They are mainly observed in the written form of speech, while the colloquial words are employed in non official every day communication; the sphere of usage is oral. Both literary and colloquial words are thither subdivided into general and special or which in there term are divided into groups each of the groups serves an narrow specified communicative purpose.
Specially literary, words terms technical sphere
1/ terms are words belonging a specific technical sphere or nomenclature, such words as teletype, semantics. Terms strive to be mono semantic which means only one meaning as possible.
2/Archaism:
· Archaic proper this are words that ousted by newer synonyms (brethren, thou – three, thy, thine; -(e)th = -(e)s
· Historisms - this are words denoting historical phenomena which are no more in use (vassal, falconet)
· Poetic words (steed – horse)
3/ Barbarism and foreign words
· Chic (=stylish)
· Bon mot 9aclever witty saying)
4/ neologism – stylistic coinages () this are words made to suite one particular occasion fond a time of neologism. They are created to designate some insignificant subjective idea or evaluation of he thing or phenomena:
· Tomatorama, bananarama (a sensational sale of bananas, tomatoes)
· Blends such as avigation (aviation + navigation), rockoon (rocket + ballon)
Special colloquial words
Slang – this are words which are often regarded as a violation of the norms (to take stock in – to be interested in, attach importance) highly emoted and expressive but they may lose the originality very fast and may be replaced by newer words and expressions.
Jargonism:
Are words market by the use with in particular social groups ad baring a secret character. Jargonism standing close to slangism and being expressing an some substandard soul not be confused as jargonism are used by limited groups of people united either professionally or unlike slang jargon covers a narrow semantic field.
Professionalisms are words used in narrow groups bound by the same occupation. They are formed according to the existing words formation patterns or they may present existing words in new meanings so they offer a vast verity of synonyms.
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Dialectisms are devoid of any stylistic meaning in the original dialogs but used outside they care a strong character of the locality in UK for major dialogs a established northern southern central and lowland Scotch. In the USA there 3 varieties: New England and, Southern and Midwestern. Dialects different in the fonetic level one in the same sound may be pronounced differently. They may also differ on the lexical level having there arong names for locally existing phenomena and supplying locally circulating for the words excepting by the language in general.
Vulgarism are coarse that are not generally use in public they have a strong emotive meaning moistly derogatory. History of valogorisms reflex the history the social ethics. Expletives and swear words of an abusive character (damn, bloody, to hell, goddam); obscene words (four-letter words banned in any form of intercourse as being indecent).
Colloquial coinages. They are spontaneous and not fixed in dictionaries they disappeared from the language without a trace. They are special formations coined for an exact occasion.
Phonetic and graphic expressive means
Items for discussion:
1/Rhyme
2/Rhythm
3/ Alliteration
4/Onomatopoeia
5/ Graphic expressive means
Separate sounds due to acoustic may awake curtain ideas, feelings, images and emotions. Different sound had different affect by choosing words writers can evoke strong emotion responses and reinforces the meaning they wish to convey. So phonetic expressive means deal with the sound incrementing of the utterance.
Rhyme is the repetition of identical o similar terminal sounds, chaining two or more lines of a poem. Rhyming words are generally placed at a regular distance frm a=each other. Rhyme has several functions.
1. It adds a musical quality to the poem
2. It makes the poem easier to remember
3. It effects the pace and town of the poem
There are several types of rhyme:
· True/perfect/full
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· Incomplete
· Compound/broken
· Eye
Rhythm
-It a regularly recurring units intended to be grasped as a definite periodicity. One more feature of verse from poise. Rhythm in language demands opposition alternates long – short, stressed – unstressed, narrow – broad. There are exist different types of rhythm:
· Trochee
· Iambus
· Dactyl
· Amphibrach
· Anapest
Alliteration
The repetition of similar sounds at the beginning of successive words. It aims add imparting a melodic effect to the utterance. Alliteration in English is deeply rude in English folklore. In old English poetry it was one of the basic principles of words. It is generally egaded as a musical support of the author’s idea. Giving it some emotional atmosphere which each reader interprets for himself (‘deep into the darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing, doubting, dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before’ (E.A. Poe)) in graphics alliteration is used as a design component.
Onomatopoeia
A combination of speech sounds which aims at imitation sounds produced by animals, people or inanimate things. Proofs to be very important for the creation of expressive at emoted connotation. May be direct and indirect:
Direct onomatopoeia imitates natural sounds, as buzz, bang, beep, clap, click, cuckoo, rustle etc.
Indirect onomatopoeia is a combination of sounds that echoes the sense of the utterance.
Graphon
Graphical fixation of phonetic peculiarities of pronunciation with the violation of the accepted spelling. Used to indicate blurred, incoherent or careless pronunciation, caused by TEMPORARY (tenders age, intoxication, ignorance of the discussed theme, etc.)
Different types of graphon:
1. Apostrophe ‘
2. CAPITAL LETTERS
3. Italics
4. Hyphen (it denotes emotional pause) –
5. Suspension marks ‘…’, or asterisks (***)
It may also denote some intentional omission the punctuation its very often used by modern poets. It may convey stream of consciousness.
Lexical Expressive Means
Items for discussion:
1/ Metaphor, metonymy, irony
2/Zeugma and pun
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3/ Epithet and oxymoron
4/ Antonomasia
5/ Simile, periphrasis, euphemism, hyperbole
There are different types of lexical meaning; they are primary, contextual, derivative, logical, emotive, and nominal.
The primary meaning is meaning which a register in the language as a easily recognize sign for a notion or objet.
Contextual meaning is an additional lexical meaning which is realize in a context
Derived a meaning which an be registered as a secondary one and which is derived from the primary meaning by means of metaphor and metonymy.
Logical meaning is the precise of the feature idea or phenomenon.
Emotive meaning has the reference to the feelings o the speaker to the subject
Nominal meaning expresses concepts indicating a particular object out of the concepts.
The principle of indirection of different types of lexical meaning is taken for the bases of classifying lexical stylistic devices. So lexical stylistic devices may be classified into:
· Metaphor, metonymy, irony (primary and contextual meanings are interected)
· Zeugma and pun (primary and directed meanings)
· Epithet and oxymoron (logical and emotive meanings)
· Antonomasia (Logical and nominal
All the stylistic devices may be genuine and trite.
· When the opposition is clearly perceived and both indicated meanings are simultaneously realized within the same short context we speak os fresh, original, genuine. Speech SD (принадлежность речи)
· When one of the meanings is suppressed by the other we speak of trite, hackneyed, language SD. (принадлежность языка)
Metaphor is transference of some quality from one object to another on the basis of their similarity.
· Genuine metaphor
e.g. ‘ the leaves fell sorrowful
Similarity on which metaphorical renemy is based may concern any property of the thing mend. It may be color, form, character of motion, speed, dimension, value. There is no connection between this object in reality. As the objects are disconnected, the speaker should search for osciactions in hi mined and it requires some intellectual affords. A metaphor becomes a SD when 2 different objects are simultaneously broad to mined by the imposition of some of the inherent property on the one objet on the other which is deprived of this properties. It may be a word, fraise or even a sentence.
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Sustained or prolonged metaphors may be injected with new live with a help of additional words containing logical development of the previous metaphor (“ Mr Pickwick bottled up his vengeance and corked it down”)
Metonymy is a transfer of meaning based on contiguity. It based on the principle of substitution of one object for another unlike metaphor the objects compared throe metonymies are connected in reality. Types of relations metonymy is based on:
· A concrete thing used instead of an abstract notion (“The cump, the pulpit and the law For rich men’s sons are free.” (Shelly))
· The container instead of the thing contained (the hall applauded)
· The relation of proximity (“The round game table was boisterous and happy”. (Disckens))
· The material may be used instead of the thing made of it; (e.g. The marble stock.)
· The instrument which the doer uses in performing the action instead of the action or the doer
· A part instead of the whole and vv / synecdoche/ the name of the genus instead of the usage specious (Stop torturing the poor animal
Irony is a stylistic device based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings (dictionary and contextual), these are meanings stand in opposition to each other.Can be realized by mean a separated words usually as adjective and verbs, words combination, whole sentences. It can hardly bestride. It used in humorous, satirical … it mustn’t be confused in humor it always produces satirical affect which is negative while humor always causes laughter. Irony is highly felt in elevated linguistic units with reference to in significant social low topics.
Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical, but different semantic relations to two adjusted words. E.g. “she dropped a tear and her pocked handkerchief.
It consists on comporting unequal semantically heterogeneous or evens a compatible word or phrases. It is realized within the limits of one in the same sentence its aim is to produce a humorous affect. It’s primarily used in emotive verbs.
Pun (play upon words) is a stylistic device based on the interaction of two well-known meaning of a word or phrase. E.g. Is life worth living? It depends upon the liver. The pun is based n policemy and homonymy.
Epitet is a word, a phrase or even a sentence used to chaacterise an object and pint out some properties of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception of these properties. It is markedly subjected. It strongly influenced a reader. Adj are especially effected by the formation effectives, adverbs may also be epithets.
They may be classified symphatic:
1. Associated epithets point to a feature. Which is essential to the object they describe
2. Unassociated epithets are the attributes used to characterize the objet by adding a feature which isn’t inherence in it.
Structurally they may subdivide into:
1. Simple (sweet voice)
2. Compound (heart-burning smile)
3. Phrase (good – for – nothing boy)
4. Sentence (he spoke in what-are-your-going-to-do-about-it manner)
5. Reversed (two nouns linked in an of-phrase) (e.g. military abbreviation of a smile)
From the point of the distribution:
1. Transferred epithets are ordinary logical attributes describing a state of a human being, but created to refer to an inanimate object. E.g. sleeplows pewol
2. String of epithets gives a many – sided depiction o the object. E.g. rosy – checked
Oxymoron is a combination of two words in which the meanings of the two clash, being opposite in sense. (awfully nice) in may have 2 structural modals: adj+n; adverb+adj. its aim is to create a humorous effect. It may be used in oratory speeches in advertising in proce.
Antonomasia is based o the interaction of lexica meaning and their simultaneous realization in the world.
It is the use of the name of a historical. Literary, mythological, or biblical personage applied to a person whose characteristic features resemble those of the well-know original.
It is intended to point out the leading features of a person or event, at the same time pinning this feature as a proper name to the person or event. (telling names) e.g. Sobakevich.
Antonomasia is a kind of revival of the initial stage in naming.
The intensification of a thing or phenomenon:
· Simile is an explicit statements of partial identity (likeness) of two object (like, as, as…as, as… thought; to remind, to resemble, to seem; e.g. as obstinate as a mule). Unlike in ordinary comparison objects compared by means of simile belong to different classis. Simile and metaphor may differ not only structurally, but also in its form; metaphor may also be called hidden simile.
· Periphrasis (circumlocution) is a description of what could be named directly. It may have a form of a phrase or a sentence; its used of a long pase os state of a short.
- Logical (based on one of the inherent properties f the object or, perhaps, features of the object described) e.g. the most pardonable of human weaknesses = love
- Figurative (based on metaphor, metonymy, irony) e.g. the Sun = the punctual servant of all work
· Euphemism is a word or phrase use to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one. E.g. a person of unsound mind, a loony, a mentally disabled person; to be no more, to join the silent majority, to kick the bucket. The life of euphemism is shot. Very soon they became with the referent and thus give way to a new words or phrase.
· Hyperbole is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of feeling or feature essential to the object. E.g. absolute perfection; to be about a thousand years old
Syntactical expressive means
Items for discussion:
1/compositional patterns of syntactical arrangement
2/ Partialar ways of combining parts or the utterance
3/Particular use of colloquial constructions
4/
Syntax is the branch of language science studying the relations between words, word combinations and larger kinds of attrances. We speak about stylistic inversion, detach constructions, parell constructhions, chiasmus, repetition, enumeration, suspense, climax and antithesis. Particular ways of combining parts of the utterance (asyndeton, polysendeton, the gap-sentence link). Particular use of colloquial constructions (ellipsis, break-in-the-narrative, question-in-the-narrative). Stylistic use of structural meaning (rhetorical question, litotes).
Stylistic inversion is every noticeable change in word – order. It aims add attaching logical stress or additional emotional color to the atteance. A specific intonation is inevitable. Its not a violation of the norms. It’s a practical realization of what is potential in the language. Stylistic and grammatical inversion is not the same. Stylistic inversion doesn’t change grammatical meaning of a sentence. It aims add making interence more conspicuous, more important, emphatic. Grammatical inversion is used in questions. The flowing patterns of stylistic inversion may be observed:
- The object is placed at the beginning of the sentence e.g. Talent Mr. Macabre has; capital Mr. Mivawber has not. (Dickens)
- The attribute s placed after the word it modifies
- The predicative is placed before the subject
- The predicative stands before the link – verb and both are placed before the subject e.g. Rude am I in my speech…
- The adverbial modifier is placed at the beginning of the sentence e.g. Eagerly I wished the morrow
- Both modifier and predicate stand before the subject
Detached construction is such a secondary part of a sentence which is placed so that it seems independent of the word it logically refers to. E.g. Sir Pitt came in first, very mach flushed, and rather unsteady in his gait. Detached construction are given prominence by intonation; the word order isn’t violated but second remembers obtain they rong stress, because they are detached from the rest of the sentence by commas or dashes.
Parallel constructions are often backed up by repetition of words (lexical repetition) and conjunctions and prepositions (polysendeton). The necessary condition of it is identical or simile syntactical structure in 2 or more sentences or parts of sentences is use in different styles, used n matter of fact style it gives the idea of semantic equality of e parts. Use in belle-letters style it has am emotive style. So it always generate rhythm.
Chiasmus / Reversed Parallel Construction is based on the repetition of a syntactical patterns. But it has a cross order of words and phrases. It lays stress on the second part of the utterances it always brings in some new shade of meaning or additional emphasis. It may be achieved true a sudden change from active into passive and v.v.
Repetition is a recuence of the same word, word combination or phrase for two or more times. It may be classified into:
- Anaphora is a repeated unit comes at the beginning of two or more consecutive sentences, clauses or phrases
- Epiphora – is a repeated unit is placed at the end of consecutive
- Framing is the initial parts of a syntactical unit, in most cases of a paragraph, are repeated at the end of it.
- Linking or reduplication o anadiplosis
Enumeration is a stylistic device by which separate things, objects, phenomena, actions or properties are named one by one so that they produce a chain.
Climax/Gradation is the arrangement of sentences which secures a gradual increase in significance, importance or emotional ences in the utterance. The gradual increase I significance may be maintained in 3 ways: logical or objective, emotive, quantitative.
· Logical is based on the relative importance of the compounence looked at from the pointed on the concept imbedded In them
· Emotional is based on the relative emotional tension produce by words with emotive
· Quantitative is an evident increase in the volume of the concepts
Antithesis is the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced phrases or clouses.
In order to chartreuses thing of phenomenon from a specific point of view it be necessary to find some features in contrast.
Suspense it consists in arranging the matter of communication in such way, that the less important parts are placed at the beginning the main idea is at the end of a sentence, so that suggest an idea of anticipation. So the reads is held and he is in the state of uncertainty and expectation. It is mainly framed with in 1 sentence and separate sentences violet the principle of consents emotional sentence characteristic of this device. This device is favored by orators.
Particular wais of combining parts…
Asyndeton is a delivered omission of connectives between parts of sentences where they are generally expected to be according to the norms of the language.
Polysyndeton is the stylistic device of connecting sentences or phrases or by using connective before each component. The repetition of conjunctions or other connectives makes an utterance or rhythmical. Unlike a numeration which combined elements in one whole. In shows things isolated. It has a disintegrated function. It causes each member of a stream of facts to stand out conspicuously.
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