Characteristic Features of the Native Vocabulary
Экзаменационный билет № 1
1. Lexicology as a branch of linguistics.
2. Affixation as a way of word-formation. The process of affixation.
Экзаменационный билет № 2
1. Informal style. Types of informal style.
2. Suffixation. Prefixation.
The main function of suffixes in Modern English is to form one part of speech from another, the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. ( e.g. «educate» is a verb, «educatee» is a noun, and « music» is a noun, «musicdom» is also a noun) .
Suffixes which can form different parts of speech are given here :
a) noun-forming suffixes, such as : -er (criticizer), -dom (officialdom), -ism (ageism),
b) adjective-forming suffixes, such as : -able (breathable), less (symptomless), -ous (prestigious),
c) verb-forming suffixes, such as -ize (computerize) , -ify (micrify),
d) adverb-forming suffixes , such as : -ly (singly), -ward (tableward),
e) numeral-forming suffixes, such as -teen (sixteen), -ty (seventy).
Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem.
The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech.
Prefixes can be classified according to different principles :
1. Semantic classification :
a) prefixes of negative meaning, such as : in- (invaluable), non- (nonformals), un- (unfree) etc,
b) prefixes denoting repetition or reversal actions, such as: de- (decolonize), re- (revegetation), dis- (disconnect),
c) prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, such as : inter- (interplanetary) , hyper- (hypertension), ex- (ex-student), pre- (pre-election), over- (overdrugging) etc.
2. Origin of prefixes:
a) native (Germanic), such as: un-, over-, under- etc.
b) Romanic, such as : in-, de-, ex-, re- etc.
c) Greek, such as : sym-, hyper- etc.
Экзаменационный билет № 3
1. Relations between lexicology and other aspects of linguistics. The sections of lexicology.
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, the science of language.
L. studies words as a system.
The branches of L.
· semantics, semasiology (studies meanings)
· morphology and word-formation (the structure of words, ways of word-building)
· etymology (the origin and evolution of words and their meanings)
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· Phraseology (word combinations and phraseological units (PhUs)
· Lexicography (compilations of dictionaries)
2. Productive and non-productive affixes.
The process of affixation consists of coming a new word by adding an affix or several affixes to some root morpheme. Affixes are classified into productive and non-productive types. By productive affixes we mean the one, which take part in deriving new words in this particular period of language development.
By non-productive affixes we mean the one, which don't take part in the process of derivation.
According to the part of speech suffixes are divided into:
noun-forrnming suffixes -age (breakage, bondage), -once/-ence (assistance, reference), -ent ( student), -dom (kingdom, freedom), -er (writer, producer), -ess (actress, lioness), -hood (manhood, childhood), -ing (building, meaning), -ion/-sion/-tion/-ation (creation, tension), -ism/-icism (heroism, criticism),, -ist (novelist), -ment_ (government) ,-ness (tenderness), -ship (friendship), -(i)ty(sonority);
adjective-forming suffixes –able, -ent (repentant, dependent), -ary (revolutionary), -ed/-d (wooded), -ful (delightful), -ian (American), -ish (childish, Irish) ,-ive (active), -less(useless), -like (lifelike), etc.;
numeral-forming suffixes -fold (twofold), -teen (fourteen), -th (seventh), -ty (sixty):
verb-forming suffixes-ate. (facilitate), -en (shorten), -ize (equalize), -ish (establish);
adverb-forming suffixes— ly (coldy), -wise (likewise).
From the etymological point of view suffixes are classified into the same large groups as words: native and borrowed. The last are subdivided into: Germanic {-dom, -th, -hood, -ly, -ness, -ship, -ward, -ful, -ing, -less, etc.), Romanic {-able, -ible, -age, -ation, -ary, -ment, -es, -ant, -ive, -al, etc.), Greek {-ism, -ist -ite, etc). . .
Prefixation is the formation of the words with the help of prefixes.
There is a group of negative prefixes {de-, dis-. in-/im-/il-/ir-, un-,a-), e.g. decentralize, disappear, disagree, incorrect, impolite, illegal, irregular, unreal, amoral.
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The prefix re- denotes repetition of the action expressed by the stem (e.g. rewrite, revisit, remarriage). In some cases prefixes serve to form words belonging to different parts of speech, e.g. bed (n) - embed (v)
According to their origin there are native prefixes (a- be-, un-, for-, mid- and partly mis-),
Romanic prefixes {ad-, Ы-, bis-, cog-, col-, cor-, de-, dis-, in-, un-, поп- etc.),
Latin {ante-, extra-, intra-, meta-, para-)
and Greek ones {anti-, proio-,syn-, poly).
Экзаменационный билет № 4
1. Colloquial words and Dialect words.
2. Conversion. Conversion in different parts of speech. (Productivity of conversion).
Conversion is the formation of words without using specific word-building affixes.
Экзаменационный билет № 5
1. The difference between Colloquial words and Slang.
2. Homonyms. Classification of homonyms.
Экзаменационный билет № 6
1. Formal style. Types of formal style.
2. Change of meaning. Nature of semantic change.
Word meaning can change or develop in the course ([kɔːs] в ходе) of historical development of the language.
The term “development of meaning” is used when a new meaning and the old meaning is coexist ([ˌkəuɪg'zɪst] сосуществуют) in the semantic structure of the word.
For example snail [sneɪl] – улитка (old)
snail – slow person ( new)
The term “change of meaning” is used when the old meaning is replaced (заменяет) by the new one.
For example meat – food (old)
meat – flash of animals, used as a food product
1) Historical or extra linguistics causes. They are changes in economic [ˌiːkə'nɔmɪk], social and scientific life. We can use some old word for a new object or notion (понятие).
For example carriage – vehicle ['vɪəkl] draw by horses
['kærɪʤ] (повозка, запряженная лошадьми)
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carriage – a railway ['reɪlweɪ] car (вагон)
2) Linguistics causes. The development of new meanings or the change of meaning may be due to the influence of other words mostly synonyms ['sɪnənɪm].
For example In the old English the noun “deer” meant any beast, but then the noun “animal” was borrowed this word become synonyms. So the noun changed its meaning a certain (['sɜːt(ə)n] определенный) kind of beast.
Экзаменационный билет № 7
1. Learned words. Professional terminology.
2. Meaning and polysemy. Semantic structure of the word.
The branch of Linguistics which studies the meaning of different linguistic units is called Semantics.
Экзаменационный билет № 8
1. Basic vocabulary.
2. Word meaning principal approaches. Types of meaning.
Экзаменационный билет № 9
1. The etymology of English words. Periodization.
2. Classifications of dictionaries.
1. explanatory or etymological (Webster and Skeat); 2. dictionary of synonyms and antonyms (Апресян); 3. parallel or bilingual (E-R Мюллер; R-E Смирнитский); 4. phonetic by Jones; 5. Phraseological by Кунин. Etymological dictionary learns not only the meaning, but also the usage of the word.
Экзаменационный билет № 10
1. The origin of the English words. Words of native origin. Common Indo-European and Germanic word-stock. Characteristic features of native words.
Etymology is a branch of linguistics that studies the origin and history of words tracing them to their earliest determinable source.
Characteristic Features of the Native Vocabulary
1. The words are monosyllabic: sun, wood, break.
2.They are polysemantic: hand – 1. Part of the human body. 2. Power, possession, by a responsibility.3. Influence. 4. Person from whom news comes. 5. Skill in using one’s hands. 6. Person who does what is indicated by the context, performer. 7. Workman. 8. Share in activity. 9. Pointer, indicator. 10. Position or direction. 11. Handwriting. 12. Signature. 13. Number of cards held by a player. 14. Unit of measurement. 15. Applause by clapping.
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3. They are characterised by high frequency.
4. Native words are usually found in set-expressions.
5. Verbs with post-positions are usually native: to look for, to look after.
6. They are characterised by a wide range of lexical and grammatical valency.
7. If words begin with wh, wr, tw, dw, sw, sh. th; if at the end they have dge, tch,nd, ld; if the roots have ng, aw, ew, ee, oo they are native.
2. Lexicography as a part of lexicology. Different problems of dictionary making.
Lexicography is the subbranch of lexicology, which studies different dictionaries. The problem of compiling new dictionaries is a problem of great importance. The richer is a vocabulary, the richer and more developed is the language. The dictionaries should reflect the richness of the language. It should contain all the meanings of the words. The change of the vocabulary is connected with the change of the life of the society. The dictionary should reflect all these changes.
Экзаменационный билет № 11
1. Early borrowings in the English language. Celtic element. Latin borrowings. Norman-French Borrowings. Borrowings from Spanish and Italian.
There are many words in English that are of foreign origin.
Latin borrowings are numerous in English. They constitute about ¼ of the English vocabulary as to historical period of their adoption. Latin borrowings may be divided into 3 groups:
· ancient borrowings which goes back as far as the 1st century B.C. when the Anglo-Saxon tribes were still on the continent and came into contact with the Romans through trade. The Latin borrowings of this period are: dish, cup, butter, cheese, wine, cherry, plum, hare, spices, pepper and kitchen.
· Borrowings which came to Britain in the 6th-7th centuries when Christianity was introduced: abbot, alter, angel, bishop, saint, candle, monk, nun, pope, Christ, school.
· Words borrowed during the revival of Classical learning and art – the Renaissance in the 14th century and since then the invasion of classical terms has never stopped. Many of them are distinctly learned words: senior, major, minor, junior, accept, educate, basis, area, idea, aggravate. Most of them are only partially assimilated but Latin borrowings of the first two periods are completely assimilated borrowings which belong to the basic word stork now.
Scandinavian Borrowings
A characteristic feature of Scandinavian borrowings is the preservation of the initial sounds [sk]=sk=sc: skirt, skill, scatter; or [g] before front vowels: get, give, forget, anger…
French Borrowings
French borrowings are especially numerous in English. They may be roughly divided into old, or Norman borrowings, and new, or Parisian, borrowings.
After the Norman conquest in 1066 French or rather Northern-French became the official language in England. The first French borrowings were terms connected with war, fare, court, law, soldiers, army, crown, country, piece, justice, office, government, parliament and state. There was almost no end to the French words that continued to pour into English up to the 16th century: chair, table, furniture, dinner, supper, soup, jelly, sausage, to fry, to boil, joy, pleasure, delight, comfort, dress, colour, flower, fruit, desire, castle, mention (особняк), beauty. These early Norman borrowings are usually fully assimilated words. In the 17th century there was a change in the character of French borrowings. New borrowings mainly from the Parisian dialect preserved their French forms as a rule: campaign, garage, ballet, rouge, bucket, and matinee, machine. Besides Latin, Scandinavian, French borrowings the English language contains words borrowed from almost every language on the globe.
Celtic Borrowings
Celtic borrowings are of primary historical importance for English. When the Anglo-Saxons came to the British Isles in the 5th century A.D. they met with the Celts or Britains – the native inhabitants of the British Isles whom they pushed away to the North and the West. The whole number of Celtic words in English whether borrowed directly or indirectly is 165 according to Walter Skeat’s counts: banner (булка домашнего хлеба), bard, glad, clad, cradle, loch/lock (lake).
Celtic elements are mostly found in place names, e.g. aber (the mouth of the river) – Aberdeen; avon (a river) – Stratford-on-Avon; inch (an island) – Inchcape.
Italian Borrowings
Italian borrowings are mostly musical terms: allegro, aria, finale, piano, opera, solo, sonata, soprano, trill, violin, macaroni, spaghetti, influenza, umbrella, manifest etc.
Spanish Borrowings
The Spanish element in English like the Italian is mainly modern, e.g. cigar, embargo, junta, mosquito etc. The following words were introduced through Spanish to Europe from America: coco, chilly, chocolate, tomato, potato, tobacco, canoeing, yucca etc.
2. Nomination. The nominative aspect of meaning. Types of nomination.
Экзаменационный билет № 12
1. Etymological doublets.
2. Morphemic and derivational analyses.
Structurally morphemes fall into three types:
A free morpheme is defined as one that coincides with the stem or a word-form. A great many root-morphemes are free morphemes, for example, the root-morpheme friend— of the noun friendshipis naturally qualified as a free morpheme because it coincides with one of the forms of the noun friend. CAN USE SEPARATEBLY
A bound morpheme occurs only as a constituent part of a word. Affixes are, naturally, bound morphemes, for they always make part of a word, e.g. the suffixes -ness, -ship, -ise (-ize),etc., the prefixes un-,dis-, de-,etc.(e.g. readiness, comradeship, to activise; unnatural, to displease, to decipher).
Many root-morphemes also belong to the class of bound morphemes which always occur in morphemic sequences, i.e. in combinations with ‘ roots or affixes. All unique roots and pseudo-roots are-bound morphemes. Such are the root-morphemes theor-in theory, theoretical,etc., barbar-in barbarism, barbarian,etc., -ceivein conceive, perceive,etc.
Semi-bound (semi-free) morpheme are morphemes that can function in a morphemic sequence both as an affix and as a free morpheme. For example, the morpheme welland halfon the one hand occur as free morphemes that coincide with the stem and the word-form in utterances like sleep well, half an hour,”on the other hand they occur as bound morphemes in words like well-known, half-eaten, half-done.Speaking of word-structure on the morphemic level two groups of morphemes should be specially mentioned.
Экзаменационный билет № 13
1. Word as a basic unit of language. Definition. Characteristics.
The word may be described as a basic unit of language. The definition of the word is one of the most difficult problems in Linguistics because any word has many different aspects. The term word denotes the main lexical unit of a language resulting from the association of a group of sounds with a meaning. This unit is used in grammatical functions characteristic of it. It is the smallest unit of a language which can stand alone as a complete utterance.
2. Borrowings in the English language versus native words.
English language consists of two layers — the native stock of words and the borrowed stock of words In fact native words comprise only 30% of the total number of words in the English vocabulary. The native words have a wider range of lexical and grammatical valency, they are highly polysemantic and productive in forming word clusters and set expressions.
Borrowings-the term is used to denote the process of adopting words from other languages and also the result of this process. Borrowed words or loanwords are words taken from another language and modified according to the patterns of the receiving language. In many cases a borrowed word especially one borrowed long ago is practically indistinguishable from a native word without a thorough etymological analysis.
Экзаменационный билет № 14
1. Word-building. Ways of word-formation in Modern English.
affixation, conversion, abbreviation (shortening, clipping, acronymy), back formation, sound interchange
Affixation is divided into suffixation and prefixation.
Sound-imitation – звукоподражание — the way of word building then the word if formed by imitating different sound. There are some simantic groups of words formed by means of sound imitation: a)sound produced by human bangs (to sneeze). b)sound produced by animals, birds, insects (buzz). c)sound produced by natural and subject (splash, bubble).
Conversion-конверсия-переход из одной части речи в другую-a morphological way of forming words then one part of speech is formed from another by changing it's paradigm. Conversation is also called affixless derivation or zero suffixation. Conversion is the main way of forming words in modern english. Verbs can be formed from nouns of different symantic group and have different meaning because of that. A)verb with instrumental meaning formed from nouns. b) verbs-actions characterists of the living being denoted by the noun (to wolf). c)verbs-actions performed at the time derated by the noun. Noun can be also formed by means of conversion of verb: a)instant of an action; b)process or state (sleep); c)object or result in action (burned).
2. Reduplication. Back- formation.
In reduplication new words are made by doubling a stem, either каждый without any phonetic changes as in bye-bye (coll, for good-bye) or with a variation of the root-vowel or consonant as in ping-pong, chit-chat (this second type is called gradational reduplication)
Back formation-way of word building when a word is formed by dropping the final morpheme to form a new word. It's opposite to suffixation. At 1st it appeared in the lenguage as a result of a boiled word (begger-попрошайкаб beg-просить). As we can notice in case of back form the part of speech meaning of the primary word is changed word a formed from nouns.
Экзаменационный билет № 15
1. Word-structure. The levels of approach to the study of word-structure.
2. Minor ways of word-building. Shortening, blending, back-formation, sound-and-stress interchange as ways of word-formation.
Back formation-way of word building when a word is formed by dropping the final morpheme to form a new word. It's opposite to suffixation. At 1st it appeared in the lenguage as a result of a boiled word (begger-попрошайкаб beg-просить). As we can notice in case of back form the part of speech meaning of the primary word is changed word a formed from nouns.
Among the words formed with the help of sound-interchange we can distinguish 3 groups of words.
1) Words formed by means of vowel interchange, e.g. food > to feed, blood > to bleed, gold > to gild; to shoot > shot, to sing> song, to write > writ (уст. писание);
2) Words formed by means of both vowel and consonantal interchange, e.g. bath > to bathe, grass > to graze (пастись, щипать траву), breath > to breathe, cloth > to clothe, loss > to lose, life > to live, choice > to choose, etc.
3) Words formed by means of consonantal interchange often accompanied by changes in spelling, e.g. grease [ ] – сало, жир > to grease[ ] – смазывать (жиром); house[ ] > to house[ ] – 1. поселить; 2. жить (в доме) 3. вмещать; price[ ] – цена > to prize[ ] – 1. высоко ценить; 2. оценивать; advice[ ] > to advise[ ];practice[ ]>to practise[ ], use [ ]>to use[ ] etc.
It should be mentioned that sometimes sound-interchange is accompanied by affixation, cf.deep > depth, wide > width, broad > breadth, long > length, strong > strength,where vowel gradation is accompanied by the addition of the -th suffix.
Stress-interchange (or change of stress, or semantic stress, or morphological stress) is another non-productive type of word-building in Modern English.
Change of stress is mostly observed in verb-noun pairs (e.g. ´transport – to trans´port; ´accent – to ac´cent; ´attribute – to att´ribute; ´compound – to com´pound; ´conflict – to con´flict; ´contest – to con´test; ´contrast – to con´trast; ´ export – to ex´port; ´object – to ob´ject; ´perfume – to per´fume)and much more seldom – in verb-adjective pairs (e.g. to pro´strate – ´prostrate= падать ниц – лежащий ничком; to ab´sent – ´absent; to abs´tract – ´abstract = отнимать; суммировать – абстрактный, отвлеченный; to fre´quent – ´frequent = часто посещать – частый).
Экзаменационный билет № 16
1. Morpheme as a basic unit of the language. Types of morphemes.
2. Compounding. Criteria of compounds.
Экзаменационный билет № 17
1. Adaptation. Types of adaptation. (Classification of borrowings according to the degree of assimilation)
2. Semantic classification of lexical units. Antonyms. Classification of antonyms.
The main unit of the lexical system is a word.
The morpheme is the smallest meaningful language unit.
Antonyms – a class of words grouped together on the basis of the semantic relations of opposition.
Antonyms proper (contrary antonyms) are antonyms which possess the following characteristics:
-they are gradable, i.e. there are some intermediate units between the most distant members of a set, e.g. cold – cool – tepid – warm – hot; never – seldom – sometimes – often – always;
-they are capable of comparison, e.g. good – better – best vs. bad – worse – worst;
-they can be modified by such intensifiers as very, slightly, extremely, fairly, rather etc., e.g. huge – very big – BIG – quite big – medium-sized – quite small – SMALL – very small – tiny;
-they do not deny one another, e.g. She is not beautiful ≠She is ugly;
-they refer not to independent absolute qualities but to some implicit norm, e.g. a big mouse vs a small elephant.
Contradictory antonyms (complementary antonyms) are mutually opposed (exclusive) and deny one another, e.g. male – female; married – single; asleep – awake; same – different. Their features:
-not gradable;
-truly represent oppositeness of meaning;
-cannot be used in the comparative or superlative degree;
-the denial of one member of such antonymic opposition always implies the assertion of the other, e.g. not dead – alive.
Conversive antonyms (conversives) are words which denote one and the same situation as viewed from different points of view, with a reversal of the order of participants and their roles, e.g. husband – wife; teacher – pupil; to buy – to sell; to lend – to borrow; to precede – to follow. These antonyms are mutually dependent on each other and one item presupposes the other.
Vectorial antonyms (directional antonyms) are words denoting differently directed actions, features, e.g. to rise – to fall; to arrive – to depart; to marry – to divorce; to learn – to forget; to appear – to disappear.
Антонимы (напротив антонимов) являются антонимами, которые обладают следующими характеристиками:
- они градуированы, т. е. есть некоторые промежуточные единицы между самыми отдаленными членами набора, например, холодно-прохладно-прохладно-тепло-жарко; никогда-редко-иногда-часто-всегда;
- они способны к сравнению, например, хорошо-лучше-лучше-лучше-хуже - хуже-хуже;
-они могут быть изменены такие усилители как очень, немного, чрезвычайно, достаточно, довольно и т. д. например , огромный – очень большой – большой – очень большой – среднего размера – довольно маленький – маленький – очень маленький – малюсенький;
- они не отрицают друг друга, например, она не красива, она уродлива;
- они относятся не к независимым абсолютным качествам, а к какой-то неявной норме, например, к большой мыши против маленького слона.
Противоречивые антонимы (дополняющие антонимы) взаимно противоположны (исключают) и отрицают друг друга, например, мужчина – женщина; женат – одиночка; спит – бодрствует; тот же – разн. Их функции:
-не подлежит оценке;
- действительно представляют противоположность смысла;
- не может использоваться в сравнительной или превосходной степени;
-отрицание одного из членов такого антонимические оппозиции всегда подразумевает утверждение о другом, например, не мертвых – живых.
Конверсивные антонимы (конверсивы) – это слова, которые обозначают одну и ту же ситуацию, что и рассматриваемые с разных точек зрения, с изменением порядка участников и их ролей, например, мужа – жену; учителя – ученика; купить – продать; одолжить – одолжить; предшествовать-следовать. Эти антонимы взаимно зависят друг от друга, и один элемент предполагает другой.
Векторные антонимы (направленные антонимы) – это слова, обозначающие по – разному направленные действия, особенности, например, подняться – упасть; прибыть – отойти; выйти замуж – развестись; научиться-забыть; появиться-исчезнуть.
Экзаменационный билет № 18
1. Sources of homonyms.
2. Semantic classification of lexical units. Synonyms. Classification of synonyms.
The main unit of the lexical system is a word.
The morpheme is the smallest meaningful language unit.
A synonym – is a word of similar or identical meaning to one or more words in the same language.
1. Ideographic synonyms. words conveying the same notion but differing in shades of meaning слова, передающие одно и то же понятие, но отличающиеся оттенками значения (Look – appearance – complexion – countenance обличье, happy- lucky
2. stylistic (differing in stylistic characteristics) – differ in connotational component in emotional, expressive and evaluative overtones : doctor – doc., captain – cap., to help – to assist
Экзаменационный билет № 19
1. Word-structure. The levels of approach to the study of word-structure.
2. Lexicography as a part of lexicology. Different problems of dictionary making.
Lexicography is the subbranch of lexicology, which studies different dictionaries. The problem of compiling new dictionaries is a problem of great importance. The richer is a vocabulary, the richer and more developed is the language. The dictionaries should reflect the richness of the language. It should contain all the meanings of the words. The change of the vocabulary is connected with the change of the life of the society. The dictionary should reflect all these changes.
Экзаменационный билет № 20
1. Meaning and polysemy. Semantic structure of the word.
The branch of Linguistics which studies the meaning of different linguistic units is called Semantics.
Three major types of word-meaning are distinguished: grammatical, lexical and part-of-speech meaning.
2. The etymology of English words. Periodization.
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