Tuition fee                          плата за обучение

The history of education in the United States has certain peculiarities which are closely connected with the specific conditions of life in the New World and the history of the American society.

The early Colonies and different politics of education for the first white settler who came to the North America from Europe in the 17^th century brought with them he educational ideas of the time most typical of the countries they represented. In Virginia and South Carolina, for example, education was entirely private. The children of the rich either had tutors or were sent to Europe for schooling. Many of the children of poor parents had no education at all. In Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York many of the schools were set up and controlled by the church.

In Massachusetts, which was much more developed at that time, three educational principles were laid down: 1) the right of the State or Colony to require that its citizens be educated; 2) the right of the State to compel the local government decision such as towns and cities, to establish schools; and 3) the right of the local government to support these schools by taxation.

At the very beginning, school buildings were often rough shacks. They were poorly equipped with a few benches, a stove, and rarely enough textbooks. Discipline was harsh, and a corporal punishment was frequent.

The program of studies consisted largely of reading, writing, basic arithmetic, and Bible lessons. Since each community was responsible for solving its own educational problems, there was no attempt to find a common standard of excellence. Even the Constitution of the United States, ratified in 1789, contained no direct mention of education.

The schools of the early 1800s were not very different from those of the pre-revolutionary period. Some historians consider hat they actually deteriorated in the three or four decades following the American Revolution, for the new country turned its attention to the development of its land, cities, and political institutions.

And yet, in attempt to generate interests in education, a number of communities continued founding schools. Some classes were opened to children for secular instruction and a number of schools for poor children which were a forerunner of the public schools in several major cities. Some States tax-supported schools and urged their spread.

The purpose of the public or “common” schools was to teach the pupils the skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic. No particular religion was to be taught.

By the mid-19^th century, the desire for free public education was widespread. But the States couldn’t find enough means for its financial support. It was during those years that communities began to support the schools within their boundaries. The States finally required local school districts to tax themselves for that purpose through the “real property” tax. This tax originated as financial support for public schools, and remain today the major financial resource for the public school system in the United States though it can no longer carry the entire burden.

Towards the second part of the 19^th century compulsory attendance laws came into effect, starting with Massachusetts in 1852 Now in most States the minimum age at which a pupil may leave school is sixteen; in five States seventeen; and in four States eighteen.

As has already been mentioned, education remains primarily a function of the States. Each State has a board of education, usually 3 to 9 members, serving mostly without pay. They are either elected by the public or appointed by the Governor. The board has an executive officer, usually called a State school superintendent or commissioner. In some cases he is elected; in others he is appointed by the board.

In theory, responsibility for operating the public educational system is local. Schools are under the jurisdiction of local school board, composed of citizens elected by residents of the school district. In fact, however, much local control has been superseded. State laws determine the length of the school year, the way in which teachers will be certified, and many of the courses which must be taught.

Though the Federal Government has no powers at all in the field of education, from time to time Congress passes different Acts which help to “assist in the expansion and improvement of educational programs to meet critical national needs”. Such Acts provide money for science, mathematics, and language instruction; for the purchase of laboratory equipment.

TASK 1.

Make up a list of words which can be joined under the headline “Education”. Give reasons for your choice.

TASK 2. Discussion.

- Describe the development of education from the 17^th through the 19^th centuries.

- State the role of the Church.

- Comment on the three principles of education laid down in Massachusetts.

- Express your attitude towards corporal punishment.

- Tell the story of the “real property” tax.

- Say how the public education system operates nowadays.

Text 5. Higher Education

There are about 3,000 colleges and universities, both private and public, in the United States. Students have to pay to go both private and State universities. Private universities are generally smaller but very expensive, which means that the tuition fees are extremely high. State colleges and universities are not that expensive, the tuition fees are usually lower, and if the students are State residents, they pay much less.

Every young person who enters a higher educational institution can get financial assistance. If a student is offered a loan, he should repay it (with interest) after he has left the college. Needy students are awarded grants which they do not have to repay. Scholarships are given when a student is doing exceptionally well at school.

American universities and colleges are usually built as a separate complex, called “campus”, with teaching blocks, libraries, dormitories, and many other facilities grouped together on one site, often on the outskirts of the city. Some universities are comprised of many campuses. The University of California, for example, has 9 campuses, the biggest being Berkeley (founded in 1868), San Francisco (1873), Los Angeles (1919), Santa Barbara (1944), Santa Cruz (1965).

All the universities are independent, offering their own choice of studies, setting their own admission standards and deciding which students meet their standards. The greater the prestige of the university, the higher the credits and grades required.

The terms “college” and “university” are often used interchangeably, as “college” is used to refer to all undergraduate education; and the our-year undergraduate program, leading to a bachelor’s degree, can be followed at either college or university. Universities tend to be larger than colleges and also have graduate schools where students can receive post-graduate education. Advanced or graduate university degrees include law and medicine.

Most colleges and universities undergraduate courses last for four years. During the first two years students usually follow general courses in the art or sciences and then choose a major – the subject or area of studies in which they concentrate. The other subjects are called minors. Credits (with grades) are awarded for the successful completion of each course. These credits are often transferable, so students ho have not done well in high school can choose a junior college (or community college), which offers a two-year “transfer” program preparing students for degree-granting institutions. Community colleges also offer two-year courses of vocational nature, leading to technical and semi-professional occupations, such as journalism.

There are no final examinations at colleges and universities, and students receive a degree if they have collected enough credits in a particular subject. The traditional degree which crowns the undergraduate course is that of a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) or a Bachelor of Science (B.C.) The lower level of graduate school is for obtaining the Master’s Degree (M.A. or M.C.), and the upper level is for the degree of a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)

Vocabulary

tuition fee                          плата за обучение

loan                                   заем

interest                              зд . процент (с суммы взятой взаймы)

to repay                             возмещать, возвращать

needy                                          нуждающийся

grant                                  субсидия, дотация

scholarship                        стипендия

dormitory (dorm)              студенческое общежитие

bachelor’s degree               степень бакалавра

Bachelor of Arts                бакалавр гуманитарных наук

Bachelor of Science           бакалавр естественных наук

graduate school                 аспирантура

the arts                              гуманитарные науки

the science(s)                     естественные науки

major                                          предмет специализации

“transfer” program                подготовительный курс

Master’s Degree                степень магистра наук

(M.A. or M.S.)                  (гуманитарных или естественных)

Doctor of Philosophy        степень доктора наук

TASK 1. Agree or disagree with the following statements:

1. The system of university education in the US is centralized.

2. There is no difference between private and State universities.

3. A University course usually lasts for four years.

4. One can obtain a bachelor’s degree at any college or University.

5. There are no special advanced University degrees.

6. Any University has only one campus.

7. There are no colleges which offer “transfer” programs.

8. M.A., M.S. and Ph.D. degrees are research degrees.

TASK 2. Additional text. Read and translate without using the dictionary.

AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES

Higher education began in the United States in 1636, when Harvard College was founded in Massachusetts. The aim was to train men for service in church and civil state. Yale College, Princeton University, Columbia University are the oldest and the most famous American higher educational institutions.

Now there are about 3,000 colleges and universities, both private and public, in the United States. Students have to pay to enter universities.

All the universities are independent, offering their own choice of studies, setting their own admission standards. Higher educational institutions usually are governed by a board of trustees.

Most colleges and universities undergraduate courses last for four years. During the first two years students usually follow general courses in the art or sciences and then choose a major – the subject or area of studies in which they concentrate. The other subjects are called minors. Credits (with grades) are awarded for the successful completion of each course.

A college grants a bachelor’s degree at the conclusion of studies.

A college prepares the student for either graduate study leading to master’s or doctor’s degree or a job immediately after graduation.

Students are classified as freshmen, sophomores, juniors and seniors

All students who have graduated from the senior class and who continue studying at a university are classified as graduate students. Scholarships are given when a student is doing exceptionally well at school.

American universities and colleges are usually built as a separate complex, called “campus”, with teaching blocks, libraries, dormitories, and many other facilities grouped together.

TASK 3. Discuss the following:

1. Different types of colleges and Universities.

2. The structure of American graduate school.

3. American and Russian Universities. (Pay special attention to the entrance standards and admission policies).

Text 6. World famous

The most famous American higher educational institutions that were already in operation during the early period came into being through the religious zeal and philanthropy of their founders.

Higher education began in the United States long time ago, when the Puritan leaders of the settlement called the Massachusetts Bay Colony founded in 1636 Harvard College (Massachusetts). Established by John Harvard, English clergyman, this college was to turn into the most famous of the American Universities.

The College of William and Mary (Virginia, 1693) was the second institution of higher education founded in the Colonies. In 1701 Connecticut Puritans established Yale College (Connecticut).

All these Colonial colleges which were gradually turned into Universities with classical education established a balance between the Humanities and Science. Their aim was to train men for service in church and civil state.

By the 1770s several more colleges had been opened: University of Pennsylvania (1740), Princeton University (1746), Washington and Lee University (1749), Columbia University (1754), Brown University (1764), Rutgers College (1766), Dartmouth College (1769).

Though the colleges in the first half of the 19^th century were numerous and widely scattered over the settled area, their enrollments were comparatively small. Since 1870s the colleges have developed enormously. Their resources have multiplied, the number of their students has increased by leaps and bounds, the program of studies has broadened and deepened, the standards have been raised, and the efficiency of the instruction has greatly increased. Rigidly prescribed courses of study have given way to elective courses.

In the course of time, when research centres and experiment stations were attached to the Universities, these institutions turned into the strongholds of science and higher education. They developed a unique, typically American structure unlike ant other existing University system in the world.

TASK 1.

Give areview of University education in its historical development.

TASK 2.

Using the text and your background knowledge, describe one of the American Universities.

Text 7. Higher Educational Institutions

It has become common for the college program to be divided into broad fields, such as language and literature, the social science, the science and mathematics, and the fine arts. Many colleges require all freshmen and sophomores to take one or two full-year courses in each of three fields. Certain courses, such as English or history, may be required for all, with some election permitted in the other fields.

Higher educational institutions usually are governed by a board of regents or a board of trustees.

The executive head of a college or a university is usually called the president. The various colleges or schools which take up a university are headed by deans. Within a school or a college there may be departments according to subject matter fields, each of which may be headed by a chairman. Other members of the faculty hold academic ranks, such as instructor, assistant professor, associate professor, and professor. Graduate students who give some part-time service may be designated as graduate assistants or fellows.

Professional education in fields such as agriculture, dentistry, law, engineering, medicine, pharmacy, teaching, etc. Is pursued in professional schools which may be part of a university or may be separate institutions which confine their instruction to a single profession. Often two, three, or four years of pre-professional liberal arts education are required before admission to a professional school. Three to five years of specialized training lead to professional degrees such as Doctor of Medicine, Bachelor of Law, etc.

Vocabulary

- Freshman                               студент–первокурсник

- Sophomore                            студент второго курса

- graduate student                    аспирант

- to govern                                         управлять

- regent                                     член правления университета

- a board of regents                  Совет управителей

- a board of trustees                 Совет попечителей

- executive head                        глава исполнительной власти

- President of the University              ректор университета

- instructor = professor                     преподаватель

- to pursue                                         заниматься, преследовать цель

- to confine                               ограничивать

- to designate                            назначать (на должность)

- liberal arts courses                 гуманитарные науки

- university fellow                    стипендиат

TASK 1. Look through the text and say which of its paragraphs gives information about:

a) professional education;

b) the broad fields into which the college education may be divided into;

c) the administration of a college.

TASK 2. Find answers to the following questions:

1. Which are the fields the college program is commonly divided into?

2. Which courses do many colleges require all freshmen and sophomores to take?

3. Who usually governs higher educational institutions?

4. Who is the executive head of a college or a university?

5. Who governs the department of a college or school?

6. Who are other members of the faculty?

7. How are graduate students who give some part-time service called?

8. What professional education fields can you name?

9. How many years of pre-professional liberal arts education are required?

10. How many years of specialized training are required for getting a degree?

Text 8. COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES

American colleges and universities are either public or private, that is, supported by public funds or supported privately by a church group or other groups acting as private citizens although under a state charter.

A public institution is owned and operated by a government, either a state or a municipal government. He government appropriates large sums of money for the institution’s expenses. Yet these sums are normally not sufficient to cover all expenses, and so the institution is partially dependent on student fees and on gifts.

A private institution receives no direct financial aid from any government, municipal, state or federal. The money used to pay the operating expenses has a threefold origin: tuition fees paid by the students, money given in the form of gifts for immediate use, and the income from invested capital in the possession of the institution and originally received by the institution in the form of the gifts to be invested with only the income to be spent.

Of the nation’s nearly 1,900 institutions of higher learning roughly one-third are state or city institutions. About 1,200 are privately controlled. Approximately 700 of these are controlled by religious groups. Less than half of these institutions are liberal art colleges and universities which stress the languages, history, science and philosophy. The rest are professional and technological schools and junior colleges.

A college is usually defined as an institution of higher learning which offers a course of instruction over a four-year period, and which grants a bachelor’s degree at the conclusion of studies. As part of university, a college graduate is distinguished from a graduate of professional school. However, the professional schools in some universities are called colleges.

A college prepares the student for two things: either graduate study leading to master’s or doctor’s degree or a job immediately after graduation. A student who majors in business administration for example, may be fully prepared for a career in business when he has finished college.

On the other hand, a student majoring in psychology often must do a great deal of graduate work before he is competent in this field.

Students are classified as freshmen, sophomores, juniors and seniors. A freshman is a first year student, a sophomore, a second year student, a junior, a third year student, and a senior, a fourth year student. All students who have graduated from the senior class and who continue studying at a university are classified as advanced students or graduate students. Some graduate students receive grants which cover the cost of their education; a person on such a fellowship is called a university fellow.

TASK 1. Skim through the text and say which of its paragraphs gives information about:

a) classification of students;

b) what is a college;

c) what a college prepares the student for;

d) what is a public institution;

e) what is a private institution.

TASK 2.

- Say what information given in the text specifies the old facts you knew.

- Say which facts given in the text were new for you.

TASK 3. Additional text. Read the text (using the dictionary if necessary) and find the information about:

1. social origin of drop-outs;

2. the reasons which keep the people out of college in the USA;

3. courses of study which have a lower pay-off in the job market in the USA.

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