Graphical expressive means and stylistic devices (graphon, its stylistic function).
Graphical expressive means include the use of punctuation, graphical arrangement of phrases, violation of type and spelling. Graphon: the intentional violation of the generally accepted spelling used to reflect peculiarities of pronunciation or emotional state of the speaker. Types of graphon: multiplication, hyphenation, capitalization, apostrophe. Functions: - to give the reader an idea about smth (level of education, emotional state, origin). – to attract attention. – to make smb memorize it. – to show smth, explain. Graphical means are popular with advertisers. They individualize speech of the character or advertising slogan. ▲ A better stain getter.▲ How do you spell relief? R-O-L-I-P-S – to make reader / listener to remember it.
11.Poetic, scientific and business styles.
The first definition property of poetry is its oldely form. It is based on the rhythmic and phonetic arrangement .
Poetry cannot really be defined, you simply cannot bind the essence of it into a few sentences. The definition of poetry changes from person to person and from time to time. One thing about poetry that will always remain constant is that it is an art. And so, you cannot exactly tell anyone how to write a poem. However, the styles, basic elements, and various techniques used in writing poems can be learned.
Learning the composition of poetry is like learning to play a musical instrument. You learn all the rules and techniques of playing the instrument before you create or compose something on it. Poetry style is the way in which a poem is written, which is different from the 'type' of poem. There are many different types of poems, and many are invented day in day out. Actually, you can easily fill a 300 page book with just different types of poems. Here, we have tried to give you an overview of the various styles.
The Style of Official Documents
1) Language of business letters; 2) Language of legal documents; 3) Language of diplomacy; 4) Language of military documents; The aim: 1. to reach agreement between two contracting parties; 2. to state the conditions binding two parties in an understanding. Each of substyles of official documents makes use of special terms. Legal documents: military documents, diplomatic documents. The documents use set expressions inherited from early Victorian period. This vocabulary is conservative. Legal documents contain a large proportion of formal and archaic words used in their dictionary meaning. In diplomatic and legal documents many words have Latin and French origin. There are a lot of abbreviations and conventional symbols. The most noticeable feature of grammar is the compositional pattern. Every document has its own stereotyped form. The form itself is informative and tells you with what kind of letter we deal with. Business letters contain: heading, addressing, salutation, the opening, the body, the closing, complimentary clause, the signature. Syntactical features of business letters are - the predominance of extended simple and complex sentences, wide use of participial constructions, homogeneous members. Morphological peculiarities are passive constructions, they make the letters impersonal. There is a tendency to avoid pronoun reference. Its typical feature is to frame equally important factors and to divide them by members in order to avoid ambiguity of the wrong interpretation.
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Scientific Prose Style
The style of scientific prose has 3 subdivisions:1) the style of humanitarian sciences; 2) the style of "exact" sciences; 3) the style of popular scientific prose. Its function is to work out and ground theoretically objective knowledge about reality. The aim of communication is to create new concepts, disclose the international laws of existence. The peculiarities are: objectiveness; logical coherence, impersonality, unemotional character, exactness. The scientific prose style consists mostly of ordinary words which tend to be used in their primary logical meaning. Emotiveness depends on the subject of investigation but mostly scientific prose style is unemotional. Grammar: The logical presentation and cohesion of thought manifests itself in a developed feature of scientific syntax is the use of established patterns. - postulatory; - formulative; - argumentative; The impersonal and objective character of scientific prose style is revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions, impersonal sentences. Personal sentences are more frequently used in exact sciences. In humanities we may come across constructions but few. Some features of the style in the text are: - use of quotations and references; - use of foot-notes helps to preserve the logical coherence of ideas. Scientific popular style has the following peculiarities: emotive words, elements of colloquial style.
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12. The structure of image
Imagery
In philosophy "image" denotes the result of reflection of the object of reality in man's consciousness. On the sensible level our senses, ideas might be regarded as images. On a higher level of thinking images take the form of concepts, judgements, conclusions. Depending on the level of reflecting the objective reality ( sensual and conceptual) there are 2 types of images:
1. Art - reflects the objective reality inhuman life. While informing us of a phenomenon of life it simultaneously expresses our attitude towards it.
2. Literature - deals with a specific type of artistic images, verbal - is a pen - picture of a thing, person or idea expressed in a figurative way in their contextual meaning in music - sounds. The overwhelming majority of Iinguists agree that a word is the smallest unit being able to create images because it conveys the artistic reality and image. On this level the creation of images is the result of the interaction of two meanings: direct (denotation) and indirect (figurative). Lexical expressive meanings in which a word or word combination is used figuratively are called tropes. The verbal meaning has the following structure:
1. Tenor (direct thought) subjective;
2. Vehicle (figurative thought) objective;
3. Ground is the common feature of T and V;
4. The relation between T and V;
5. The technique of identification (The type of trope);
e. g. She is sly like a fox (simile). Images may be individual, general.
a) deal with concrete thing or idea e.g. Thirsty wind.
b) embrace the whole book e. g. War and Peace.
c) visual
e. g. the cloudy lifeage of the sky
d) oral - created by sound imitations
Stylistic use of phraseology
Phraseological units can be classified according to the degree of motivation of their meaning. This classification was suggested by acad. V.V. Vinogradov for Russian phraseological units. He pointed out three types of phraseological units:a) fusions where the degree of motivation is very low, we cannot guess the meaning of the whole from the meanings of its components, they are highly idiomatic and cannot be translated word for word into other languages, e.g. on Shank’s mare - (on foot), at sixes and sevens - (in a mess) etc;b) unities where the meaning of the whole can be guessed from the meanings of its components, but it is transferred (metaphorical or metonymical), e.g. to play the first fiddle ( to be a leader in something), old salt (experienced sailor) etc;c) collocations where words are combined in their original meaning but their combinations are different in different languages, e.g. cash and carry - (self-service shop), in a big way (in great degree) etc.
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Set phrases possess certain properties of individual words.
Some of them are elevated: an earthly paradise; Some are subneutral:
to rain cats and dogs; to be in one's cups (= to be drunk);
Among the elevated phrases we can discern the same groups as among the elevated words:
a) archaisms — the iron in one's soul ('permanent embitterment');
Mahomet's coffin ('between good and evil'); to play upon advantage ('to swindle');
b) bookish phrases — to go to Canossa ('to submit'); the debt of nature ('death'); the knight of the quill ('writer'); gordian knot ('a complicated problem');
c) foreign phrases — a propos de bottes ('unconnected with the preceding remark'); mot juste ('the exact word').
Subneutral phrases can also be divided into:
a) colloquial phrases — alive and kicking ('safe and sound'); a pretty kettle offish ('muddle');
b) jargon phrases — a loss leader ('an article sold below cost to attract customers');
c) old slang phrases — to be nuts about ('to be extremely fond of);
to shoot one's grandmother ('to say a non-sensical or commonplace thing'); to keep in the pin ('to abstain from drinking'); to kick the bucket, to hop the twig ('to die').
Even what might be called neutral phrases produce a certain stylistic effect as opposed to their non-phrasal semantic equivalents (to complete absence of phrases in the whole text)r Correct English and good English are most certainly not identical from the viewpoint of stylistics. Idioms and set expressions impart local colouring to the text;
Absence of set phrases makes speech poor and in a way unnatural: something like a foreigner's English. On the other hand, excessive use of idioms offends the sense of the appropriate.
A very effective stylistic device often used by writers consists in intentionally violating the traditional norms of the use of set phrases.
Often the key-words of well-known phrases are purposely replaced. Thus, unmasking the inhuman 'philosophy of facts' in his novel Hard Times, Dickens ironically exclaims Fact forbid! instead of God forbid!.
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Mark Twain replaces the epithet in the expression The Golden Age, naming satirically his contemporary epoch The Gilded Age. A number of curious instances of distorting 'literalizing', combining mid opposing phraseological expressions to achieve stylistic effects are adduced by L. A. Barkova, who studied commercial advertising.
8. The expression is obviously derived from the internationally known phrase the other side of the medal.
Changes in spelling (attaining a new meaning and at the same time preserving the phonetical form of the original set expression) are also resorted to. The well-known precept Waste not, want not (the idea of which nis 'wasting will make one suffer from want of what has been wasted', or to put it shorter, 'wasting brings suffering') is used by the producer of dietary foods, hinting in his advertisement at the disadvantage of being fat: Waist not, want not.
A furniture shop praises its sofas: Sofa, So Good! (from so far, so good ).
A special device is the interaction of set phrases in an ad for a new cookbook: The last word in French cookbooks by the first lady of French cooking. The phrases last word and first lady make an antithesis, thus enhancing the expressive force of the statement.
Sometimes allusions are made use of. The ad recommending Smirnoff's Silver (a famous brand of whisky) says that it is for people who want a silver lining without the cloud (the allusion is to the proverb Every cloud has a silver lining, i.e. 'everything that is bad has a good side to it'). The advertiser's assertion without the cloud could be a hint that the consumer will have no hang-over afterwards.
Colloquial styles
The colloquial style is a peculiar subsystem of the English language. On the one hand, its major field of application is found in the spoken variety of language; on the other hand, elements of this style penetrate the written varieties such as the BLS, the PS and NS.
When written, the colloquial style's function is to render the specificity of everyday conversation. Underlying many of its specific features are the following factors: 1) the spontaneous character of communication; 2) the private character of communication; 3) face-to-faceness.
Four tendencies may explain the peculiarities of the colloquial style:
1) prefabrication and 2) creativity, 3)compression and 4) redundancy.
1) The colloquial style has a great amount of ready-made formulae, cliches, all kinds of prefabricated patterns. Spontaneous conversation is facilitated by using stereotyped units – social phrases such as greetings (hello), thanks and responses (not at all...) 2) Creativity is also a result of spontaneous speech production. We make our conversation as we go along. We have no time to polish it deliberately, but one can do corrections, thus there are many hesitations, false starts, loose ends in grammar and syntax. 3) Compression tends to make speech more economical and laconic. It is reflected in the use of the following language phenomena: a)Shortened forms and clipped words (nouns: fridge, lab, math; verbs: am -'m, . is-'s, are-'re, have-'ve, etc.). b)Words of broad semantics (thing, one). c) Ellipsis is usual in face-to-face communication as the situation (context) easily supplies the missing part (Same time, same place?). d) Simplicity of syntax. Long sentences are seldom used in colloquial informal communication, for a simple reason that the speaker doesn't want : lose the thread of his own thought 4) Redundancy reflects another aspect of unprepared speech production. Among the elements reflecting this tendency are: a) time-fillers (you know, I say, let me tee, sort of). b) the pleonastic use of pronouns (John, he is late). c) senseless repetition of words and phrases. (Liza: I'm a good girl, I am.)
The vocabulary of the literary colloquial style comprises neutral, bookish and literary words, though exotic words and colloquialisms are no exception. It is devoid of vulgar, slangy and dialectal lexical units. Sentences are short and elliptical, with clauses connected asyndeticall
Represented speech.
One of the types of narration observed in artistic prose is a peculiar blend of the viewpoints and language spheres of both the author and the character. It was first observed and analysed almost a hundred years ago, with the term represented(reported) speechattached to it. Represented speech serves to show either the mental reproduction оf а once uttered remark, or the character's thinking. Represented speech is that form of utterance which conveys the actual words of the speaker through the mouth of the writer but retains the peculiarities of the speaker's mode of expression.
The first case is known as representeduttered speech(demands that the tense should be switched from present to past and that the personal pronouns should be changed from 1st and 2nd person to 3rd person as in indirect speech, but the syntactical structure of the utterance does not change) , the second one as represented inner speech(Inner represented speech, unlike uttered represented speech, is usually introduced by verbs of mental perception, as think, meditate, feel, occur (an idea occurred to...), wonder, ask, tell oneself, understand and the like. Very frequently, however, inner represented speech thrusts itself into the narrative of the author without any introductory words and the shift from the author's speech to inner represented speech is more or less imperceptible.). The latter is close to the personage's interior speech in essence, but differs from it in form: it is rendered in the third person singular and may have the author's qualitative words, i. e. it reflects the presence of the author's viewpoint alongside that of the character, while interior speech belongs to the personage completely, formally too, which is materialized through the first-person pronouns and the language features of the character.
Rhythm. Alliteration
Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance. The essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the beginning of successive words: " The possessive instinct never stands still (J. Galsworthy) or, "Deep into the darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing, doubting, dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before" (E. A. Poe).
Alliteration, like most phonetic expressive means, does not bear any lexical or other meaning unless we agree that a sound meaning exists as such. But even so we may not be able to specify clearly the character of this meaning, and the term will merely suggest that a certain amount of information is contained in the repetition of sounds, as is the case with the repetition of lexical units.
examples:
But a better butter makes a batter better.
A big bully beats a baby boy.
Both sentences are alliterative because the same first letter of words (B) occurs close together and produces alliteration in the sentence. An important point to remember here is that alliteration does not depend on letters but on sounds. So the phrase not knotty is alliterative, but cigarette chase is not.
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