Historic Changeability of Word-Structure
Language is never stable: it undergoes changes on all its levels: phonetic, morphological, lexical, phraseological, etc.
As for some morphemes, in the course of time they may become fused together or may be lost altogether. As a result of this process, radical changes
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in the structure of the word may take place: root-morphemes may turn into affixational or semi-affixational morphemes, polymorphic words may become monomorphic, compound words may be transformed into derived or even simple words.
E.g.: the present-day suffixes -hood, -dom, -like, -ship were in OE root-morphemes and stems of independently functioning words.
The present day English monomorphemic words «husband» and «woman» were in OE compound words, consisting of two stems:
hus-bond-a - хозяин, владелец дома
wif-man (OE) - woman (a simple word).
In the process of historical development some word-structures underwent reinterpretation: there are cases when simple root-words came to be understood as derived words consisting of two constituents.
E.g.: beggar, editor, cobbler - the representation of such words led to the formation of simple verbs like - «to beg», «to edit», «to cobble».
Productive and Nonproductive Ways of Word-Formation
There are different ways of forming words. Word-formation is the process of creating words from the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic formulae and patterns, e.g.: paint-er, week-end, TV, doctor - to doctor.
Productive word-formation is widely used to form a lot of new words with the help of: 1) affixation, 2) word-composition, 3) conversion, 4) shortening.
Non-productive ways of word-formation are not used now to form new words, they are: 1) back-formation, 2) sound-and-stress interchange.
AFFIXATION
1. Affixation as a type of word-formation.
2. Kinds of affixes.
3. Prefixation.
4. Suffixation.
Affixation as a Type of Word-Formation
Affixation is the formation of new words by adding derivational affixes to different types of stems.
On the derivational level derived words consist of a primary stem (simple, derived, compound) and a derivational affix.
E.g.: specialist = A (a simple stem) +-ist.
helplessness = (N + less - a derived stem) + -ness.
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chairmanship = (N + N - a compound stem) + -ship.
Degrees of derivation:
the zero degree - the stem of such words coincides with a root morpheme: penny, help, black;
the 1st degree - the stem of such words consists of a root-morpheme and a derivational affix: penni-less, help-less, black-ness;
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the 2nd degree - words formed by two consecutive stages of coining: help-less-ness, friend-li-ness
Kinds of Affixes
Prefixes:
1. Prefixation is mostly typical of verbs.
2. Prefixes change the lexical meaning of the stems (read - reread).
3. Only some prefixes change the part of speech formed: to en-train, to
em-bronze.
Suffixes:
1 .Suffixation is mostly characteristic of noun and adjective formation.
2. Suffixes also change the lexical meaning of words: helpless.
3.The majority of suffixes change the part of speech formed: child-less, to black-en. Only some suffixes do not change part of speech: brown - brownish, child - childhood, friend - friendship. They transfer a word into another semantic group (from concrete to abstract): child-childhood.
Prefixation
Prefixation is the formation of words with the help of prefixes. There are about 51 prefixes in the system of Modern English word-formation.
Prefixes may be classified into several groups on different principles: in accordance with their l)origin, 2)meaning, 3)function and according to 4)the parts of speech formed.
Diachronical Classification
Native prefixes: be - beset, mis - misdeed, un - unable, out - outlet, under - undergo, over - overall, after - afterthought.
Foreign prefixes: pre - predominate, post - postword,j:o - coordinate, inter - interchange, super - superstar, sub - subdivide, proprorate, extra - ex-traofficial, anti - antiwar, ultra - ultramodern.
Many of the native prefixes were originally independent words, gradually they lost independence and turned into prefixes (out-, under-, over-). Prefixes mis-, un- have always functioned as prefixes.
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In the course of time English has adopted a great many prefixes from foreign languages. One must bear in mind that prefixes are borrowed not separately, but as constituent parts of borrowed words.
Quite a number of borrowed prefixes have become of international currency: extra-, inter-, sub-, anti-, counter-, super-.
Synchronical Classification According to the meaning:
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1. negative prefixes: un - unemployed, non - nonproductive, in - incor
rect, dis - disarmament, a - amoral;
2. reversative prefixes: un - unfasten, de - deform, dis - disconnect;
3. prefixes of time and order: fore - foretell, pre - prewar, post - postwar,
ex - expresident;
4. prefix of repetition: re - reread;
5. locative prefixes: super - supersonic, sub - subway, inter -
intercontinental, trans - transatlantic, over - overcoat;
6. pejorative prefixes: (содержит отрицательную оценку с неодобри-
тельным оттенком): mal - maltreat (вести себя жестоко по отношению к
человеку), pseudo - pseudoscientific.
According to the part of speech formed:
be - belittle, de - deface, detrain, en - entrap, enslave.
According to stylistic reference:
- stylistically neutral (native, Latin),
- stylistically coloured (some Greek ones).
According to productivity:
- productive (re-, un-, dis-),
- nonproductive (a-, for-, with-, forth-).
Suffixation
Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes.
Diachronic Approach
Native suffixes:-ness, -ish, -dom, -hood, -ing, etc.
Foreign suffixes: -ation, -ment, -ance,-tron, -ist, -ism, -ess, -all, -ade.
Many of the suffixes of native origin were originally independent words. In the course of time they gradually lost their independence and turned into derivational suffixes. E.g., such noun suffixes as -dom, -hood, -ship, may be traced back to words:
-dom (OE dom = judgement, sentence - приговор)
-hood (OE had = state, condition)
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Many suffixes, however, have always been known as derivational suffixes in the history of the English language: -ish, -less, -ness, etc.
Foreign suffixes, as well as prefixes, were borrowed from other languages in the words, not separately.
Synchronical Classification According to the part of speech:
1) noun-forming suffixes: -er, -dom, -ness, -ist, -ation, -ism, -ment, -age, -
ant, -ее, -ty, -ess;
2) adjective-forming suffixes: -able, -less, -ful, -ic, -ous, -ent, -ish, -аl,
-ative;
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3) verb-forming suffixes: -en, -fy, -ize, -ate;
4) adverb-forming suffixes: -ly, -ward.
According to the meaning:
1. noun suffixes:
a) agent, profession, occupation: -er, -eer, -ant, -ist, etc.;
b) appurtinence: -an - Arabian, -ian - Russian, -ese - Japanese;
c) collectivity: -age, -dom, -ery, -hood, -ship;
d) abstract ideas: -age, -ence, -ancy, -dom, -hood, -ship, -ment, -ism, -
tion, -sion, -th, -ty, -ness;
2. adjective suffixes:
a) presence of quality: -ous, -ful, -able (-ible);
b) absence of quality: -less.
According to stylistic reference:
- stylistically neutral,
- stylistically coloured: -oid, -i/form, -tron.
According to productivity:
- productive,
- non-productive: -ock, -lock, -t.
WORD-COMPOSITION
1. Compounding as a type of word-formation.
2. Structure of compound words: their inseparability.
3. Meaning of compound words. Motivation in compounds.
4. Classification of compounds.
5. Sources of compounds.
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