Different Means of Expressing Future Actions Compared
Английского
Языка
Рекомендовано Министерством
общего и профессионального
образования Российской Федерации
в качестве учебника для студентов
институтов и факультетов
иностранных языков
Москва
2003
УДК 802.0(075.8)
ББК 81.2 Англ-2
К 85
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
Крылова И. П., Гордон Е. М.
К85 Грамматика современного английского языка: Учебник
для ин-тов и фак. иностр. яз. — 9-е изд. — М.: Книжный дом
«Университет»: Высшая школа, 2003. — 448 с. — На англ. яз.
ISBN 5-8013-0168-2 (Книжный дом «Университет»)
ISBN 5-06-004669-9 (Высшая школа)
Учебник предназначен для студентов тех институтов и факультетов
иностранных языков, в которых курс практической грамматики читается
на английском языке. Учебник содержит развернутое описание частей
речи, краткие сведения о структуре предложения. Последовательно про-
водится стиллистическая дифференциация грамматических явлений.
Тщательный подбор иллюстративных примеров, которые содержат об-
щеупотребительную лексику, но вместе с тем являются образцами хоро-
шего литературного языка, обеспечивают повышение общего уровня вла-
дения языком.
Рекомендуется использовать в комплекте со «Сборником упражнений
по грамматике английского языка» И. П. Крыловой.
УДК 802.0(075.8)
ББК 81.2 Англ-2
ISBN 5-8013-0168-2
(Книжный дом «Университет»)
ISBN 5-06-004669-9
(Высшая школа) © И. П. Крылова, Е. М. Гордон, 2003
"A Grammar of Present-Day English" — учебник, предназначенный
для студентов институтов иностранных языков, а также факультетов
иностранных языков педагогических институтов и филологических фа-
культетов университетов. Это означает, что учебник рассчитан на сту-
дентов, овладевших грамматическим материалом, предусмотренным
программой средней школы, т. е. знакомых с основными понятиями
морфологии и синтаксиса. Учебник представляет собой практический
курс грамматики английского языка. Практическая направленность
учебника определяет принципы, положенные в его основу:
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1. Авторы не считают возможным в практическом курсе грамма-
тики давать теоретическое обоснование своей точке зрения и ограничи-
ваются лишь практическими выводами.
2. В учебнике описываются грамматические нормы английского
языка, иными словами, объясняются типичные явления, которые и
должны усваиваться студентами. В ряде случаев упоминаются также и
отклонения от норм, если они необходимы студентам для правильного
понимания читаемой литературы, но при этом всегда делается специ-
альная оговорка. Редкие отклонения от норм вообще не включены в
учебник.
3. Авторы ставят перед собой задачу не только описать граммати-
ческие явления современного английского языка, но также предста-
вить их так, чтобы предотвратить типичные ошибки.
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4. Один из ведущих принципов, положенных в основу учебника,
заключается в том, что студенты должны изучать хорошие образцы
английского языка. Это относится как к формулированию правил, так
и к примерам, которые их иллюстрируют. Поэтому особое внимание
уделялось подбору иллюстративного материала. Авторы стремились к
тому, чтобы примеры содержали употребительную лексику и одновре-
менно оставались бы хорошими образцами английского языка и чтобы
учебник, таким образом, помогал студентам совершенствовать их зна-
ния. Следует заметить, что количество примеров варьируется в учебнике
в зависимости от употребительности того или иного грамматического
явления и от объема раздела, который он иллюстрирует.
Кроме того, в учебник включены наиболее употребительные устой-
чивые сочетания (set phrases) и готовые фразы (stereotyped phrases),
возникшие на основе описанных грамматических моделей.
5. В учебнике проводится стилистическая дифференциация грам-
матических явлений, в частности особая оговорка делается в отноше-
нии явлений, типичных только для книжной речи или носящих сугубо
разговорный характер. Грамматические модели, которые в стилистиче-
ском отношении являются нейтральными, в специальных пояснениях,
разумеется, не нуждаются.
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В связи с этим авторы рекомендуют преподавателям привлечь осо-
бое внимание студентов к правильному стилистическому исполь-
зованию грамматических моделей.
6. В учебнике не проводится систематического сопоставления грам-
матических явлений английского языка с соответствующими яв-
лениями в русском языке. Авторы, однако, прибегают к сравнениям с
русским языком там, где это необходимо для понимания того или ино-
го явления в английском языке.
Переводы на русский язык отдельных предложений, оборотов, тер-
минов даются лишь там, где возникает опасение, что английский мате-
риал будет труден для понимания.
Авторы считают, что для практических целей овладения англий-
ской грамматикой достаточно описания частей речи со всеми их семан-
тическими, морфологическими и синтаксическими особенностями.
В учебнике отражены следующие признаки частей речи: 1) их се-
мантика, 2) грамматические категории (для изменяемых частей речи),
3) их функции в предложении. Эти критерии, служащие для выделе-
ния частей речи в языке, положены в основу описания каждой отдель-
ной части речи, и этот принцип проводится в учебнике систематиче-
ски.
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Хотя словообразование и сочетаемость с другими частями речи так-
же являются существенными критериями выделения частей речи в
языке, авторы не нашли нужным включать эти разделы в учебник. В
институтах и на факультетах иностранных языков словообразование
обычно входит в курс лексикологии, и включение его в грамматику
создало бы ненужное дублирование курсов.
Что касается сочетаемости частей речи, то она фактически отраже-
на в учебнике полностью при описании их синтаксических функций в
предложении, и для практического овладения материалом выделение
ее в особый раздел представляется излишним.
Согласно общепризнанной точке зрения, важнейшей частью речи
является глагол, который представляет собой ядро предложения. В
практическом плане именно употребление глагольных форм представ-
ляет для изучающих английский язык наибольшие трудности. Поэто-
му глаголу в учебнике уделяется самое значительное место, и именно с
глагола начинается рассмотрение всех частей речи.
Другим чрезвычайно важным в практическом отношении разделом
грамматики является употребление артиклей. Этой теме в учебнике
также отводится значительное место.
Стремясь к тому, чтобы учебник максимально способствовал имен-
но практическому овладению грамматикой, авторы по-новому освеща-
ют некоторые грамматические явления или вносят дополнения и уточ-
нения к традиционным объяснениям.
Это относится, в первую очередь, к разделам, посвященным глаго-
лу. В учебнике вводится понятие структурной и лексической обуслов-
ленности употребления некоторых глагольных форм (см. "Verbs", §8),
и преподавателям следует уделять этому вопросу особое внимание.
Важную роль в учебнике играет выделение структурных моделей, ти-
пичных для употребления некоторых глагольных форм. По-новому ос-
вещается употребление формы Present Perfect и форм, служащих для
отнесения действия к будущему. Введены дополнительные объяснения
к употреблению форм Past Continuous, Past Perfect, Present Perfect
Continuous и Past Perfect Continuous, а также к правилам согласования
времен и употребления страдательного залога. По возможности просто,
без излишней терминологической перегруженности, трактуются формы
выражения нереальности, Они тесно связаны с употреблением модаль-
ных глаголов, объяснение которых предшествует описанию форм нере-
альности. Изменения внесены также в описание неличных форм глагола:
их специфика выявляется лишь при сопоставлении с предикативными
формами, и этому вопросу уделяется много внимания. Детально описы-
вается значение простой формы, объясняются причины относительно
редкого употребления аналитических форм. Внесены изменения и в
описание функций неличных форм глагола в предложении. Наиболее
существенное изменение касается герундия и причастия I, которые по
традиции обычно рассматриваются как две различные формы, хотя
многие грамматисты указывают, что они фактически не разграничи-
мы. В предлагаемом учебнике они трактуются, вслед за некоторыми
лингвистами, как единая форма — the ing- form, способная выполнять
в предложении, подобно инфинитиву, самые разнообразные функции.
Для практического овладения материалом такая интерпретация, как
показывает опыт, оказывается более эффективной. Авторы рекоменду-
ют изучать употребление инфинитива и инговой формы параллельно по
функциям. Например, изучая инфинитив в функции подлежащего, це-
лесообразно одновременно читать материал об инговой форме в той же
функции, а также параграфы, в которых эти две функции сравнивают-
ся (§§ 181, 209 и 235). Затем следует переходить к другой функции. На
этой сравнительной основе построены упражнения в «Сборнике упраж-
нений по грамматике английского языка» И. П. Крыловой. Вопрос раз-
граничения герундия и причастия I представляет интерес скорее для
изучающих курс теоретической грамматики английского языка.
По-новому освещается в учебнике также употребление артиклей.
Раздел «Краткие сведения о структуре предложения» не претендует
на полное описание синтаксической структуры английского языка, а
является скорее справочным материалом, которым следует пользо-
ваться в том случае, если, работая над основными главами, студенты
сталкиваются с трудностями в определении синтаксических функций
тех или иных классов слов. Кроме того, в учебнике используются не
совсем традиционные названия некоторых синтаксических функций,
объяснение которым также можно найти в этом разделе.
В учебнике имеется приложение, которое содержит список не-
правильных глаголов и предметный указатель.
Автор
PARTS OF SPEECH IN ENGLISH
The words of every language fall into classes which are called
parts of speech. Each part of speech has characteristics of its
own. Parts of speech differ from each other in meaning, form
and function.
Different parts of speech have different lexical meanings. For
example, verbs are words denoting processes (to work, to live);
nouns are names of objects (table, boy); adjectives are words ex-
pressing characteristics (good, bad), etc.
Some parts of speech have different grammatical categories,
e.g. verbs have the categories of mood, tense, aspect, phase, voice,
person and number; nouns have the categories of number and case;
adjectives have degrees of comparison, etc.
Other parts of speech are invariable, they have only one form.
Here belong such parts of speech as prepositions and conjunctions.
Parts of speech also differ from each other in their syntactic
functions. For example, verbs have the function of the predicate in
the sentence, nouns are often used as the subject or the object of
the sentence, adjectives serve as attributes or predicatives; adverbs
are generally adverbial modifiers, etc.
These characteristic features will be described in detail when
each part of speech is considered individually.
In addition, all words may be divided into two main groups:
notional and structural.
Notional words have distinct lexical meanings and perform in-
dependent syntactic functions in the sentence: they serve either as
primary or secondary parts of the sentence. To this group belong
the following parts of speech: verbs, nouns, adjectives, numerals,
pronouns and adverbs.
Structural words differ from notional words semantically:
their lexical meaning is of a more general character than that of
notional words (e.g. in, and, even). Moreover, they are sometimes
altogether devoid of it (e.g. the articles the and a, the conjunction
that, the preposition of, etc.). Structural words do not perform
any independent syntactic function in the sentence but serve either
to express various relations between words in a sentence (e.g. the
trees in the garden, Tom and Joe, etc.) or to specify the meaning
of a word (e.g. the book, a book, etc.). The following parts of
speech are to be treated as structural words: articles, prepositions
and conjunctions.
The division of words into notional and structural is connected
with certain difficulties. For example, verbs, which, on the whole,
are to be treated as notional words, include certain words which
serve as structural elements (e.g. modal verbs), some other verbs
may function either as notional words or as structural words (e.g. to
look is a notional verb in He looked at me and a structural word —
a link-verb — in He looked tired; the verb to have is a notional
verb in I have a car and a structural word — a modal verb — in I
had to do it). Pronouns may be quoted as another example since,
on the one hand, they have, like all notional words, independent
syntactic functions in the sentence but, on the other hand, they
are devoid of distinct lexical meaning.
VERBS
§ 1. According to content, verbs can be described as words de-
noting actions, the term "actions" embracing the meaning of activ-
ity (e.g. to walk, to speak, to play, to study), process (e.g. to sleep,
to wait, to live), state (e.g. to be, to like, to know), relation (e.g. to
consist, to resemble, to lack) and the like.
According to form, verbs can be described as words that have
certain grammatical features that are not shared by other parts of
speech, e.g. they have the categories of tense, aspect, voice, etc.
According to function, verbs can be defined as words making
up the predicate of the sentence.
§ 2. Verbs can be classified under different heads.
1) According to their meaning verbs can be divided into two
groups — terminative and durative verbs.
Terminative verbs imply a limit beyond which the action can-
not continue. To put it differently, they have a final aim in view,
e.g. to open, to close, to bring, to recognize, to refuse, to break.
With the verb to open, for example, that means that after opening
the door it is impossible to go on with the action as the door is al-
ready open.
Durative verbs do not imply any such limit, and the action can
go on indefinitely, e.g. to carry, to live, to speak, to know, to sit,
to play.
But as most verbs in English are polysemantic they may be ter-
minative in one meaning and durative in another. For example, to
see may have the terminative meaning 'увидеть' and the durative
meaning 'видеть'; to know may denote 'знать' and 'узнать- The
meaning of the verb becomes clear from the context. Compare: I
saw him at once and I saw his face quite clearly. As will be seen,
the distinction between terminative and durative verbs is of great
importance as it affects the use of certain tense-aspect-phase
forms.
2) According to their relation to the continuous form, English
verbs fall into two groups: dynamic verbs, i.e. verbs which admit
of the continuous form (a) and stative verbs, i.e. verbs which do
not admit of the continuous form (b).
e.g. a) We were eating dinner when he called.
You'll find Mother in the kitchen. She is making a cake,
b) I understand what you mean.
I don't see him in the crowd.
The distinction between dynamic, and stative verbs is funda-
mental in English grammar, and it is also reflected in a number of
other ways than in the continuous form.
It is normal for verbs to be dynamic, and even the minority that
are almost always stative can be given a dynamic use on occasion.
The following is the list of most commonly used stative verbs:
a) verbs denoting physical perceptions: to hear, to notice, to see;
b) verbs denoting emotions: to adore, to care for, to detest, to
dislike, to hate, to like, to love, to respect;
c) verbs denoting wish: to desire, to want, to wish;
d) verbs denoting mental processes: to admire (= to be of high
opinion), to appreciate, to assume, to believe (= to consider), to con
sider (= to regard), to doubt, to expect (= to suppose), to feel (= to
consider), to imagine, to know, to mind (= to object), to perceive, to
presume, to recall, to recognize, to recollect, to regard, to remember,
to suppose, to think (= to consider), to trust, to understand;
e) relational verbs: to apply, to be, to belong, to concern, to con-
sist, to contain, to depend, to deserve, to differ, to equal, to fit, to
have, to hold (= to contain), to include, to involve, to lack, to mat-
ter, to need, to owe, to own, to possess, to remain, to require, to re-
semble, to result, to signify, to suffice;
f) some other verbs: to agree, to allow, to appear (= to seem),
to astonish, to claim, to consent, to displease, to envy, to fail to
do, to feel (intr)l, to find, to forbid, to forgive, to intend, to inter-
est, to keep doing, to manage to do, to mean, to object, to please,
to prefer, to prevent, to puzzle, to realize, to refuse, to remind, to
satisfy, to seem, to smell (intr),1 to sound (intr),1 to succeed, to
suit, to surprise, to taste (intr),1 to tend, to value.
1 As in: The surface feels rough. The song sounds nice. The soup tastes (smells) nice.
3) English verbs are also classified according to the type of ob-
ject they take. Verbs that do not require any object are called
intransitive.
e.g. We walked across the fields.
Nobody knew where the old man lived.
Verbs that require some kind of object to complete their mean-
ing are called transitive. The objects transitive verbs take may be
direct (a), indirect (b) or prepositional (c).
e.g. a) I swear I'm telling the truth.
b) His mother never gave him advice.
c) Now let's talk of something sensible.
Polysemantic verbs may be transitive in one meaning and in-
transitive in another.
e.g. I didn't know where to find him as he had changed his address.
I was glad to see that he had not changed at all.
He ran uphill past a block of houses.
She ran the shop quite competently.
§ 3. According to their meaning and function in the sentence
English verbs are classified into notional and structural ones.
Notional verbs always have a lexical meaning of their own
and can have an independent syntactic function in the sentence.
e.g. During the war he lived in London.
When a verb is used as a structural word, it may either pre-
serve or lose its lexical meaning. But even if it has a lexical
meaning of its own, the latter is of a specific character and the
verb cannot have an independent syntactic function in the sen-
tence — it is always closely connected with some other word.
Here belong modal verbs and link-verbs.
A modal verb is always accompanied by an infinitive — to-
gether they form a modal predicate.
e.g. The party is at eight. You must dress suitably for it.
I couldn't do anything under the circumstances.
A link-verb is followed by a predicative; together they form a
nominal predicate.
e.g. He was a middle-aged man.
It became very hot by noon.
The hotel remained empty all through the winter.
The cottage seemed deserted.
Sometimes a verb is entirely devoid of lexical meaning and is
then called an auxiliary verb. Combined with a notional verb it
serves to build up analytical forms.
e.g. We had arranged to meet in the usual place.
Do you know why he said that?
The young man was sitting at the table alone.
Polysemantic verbs may be notional as well as structural words.
e.g. He is married and has three children (a notional verb used in
the meaning 'to possess').
I had to reconsider my position (a structural word: a modal
verb denoting obligation, part of a modal predicate).
"It has happened now," he said, "so there's nothing to do"
(a structural word: an auxiliary verb which serves to build
up an analytical form).
He looked at me, waiting for the next words ( notional verb
meaning 'glanced').
He looked quite happy (a structural word: a link-verb meaning
'seemed').
§ 4. English verbs are characterized by a great variety of forms
which can be divided into two main groups according to the func-
tion they perform in the sentence: the finite forms and the non-fi-
nite forms.
The finite forms have the function of the predicate in the sen-
tence and may also be called the predicative forms.
The non-finite or non-predicative forms can have various other
functions; they are used as the predicate of the sentence only by
way of exception. These forms are often called the verbals (see
"Verbs", §§ 163-254).
The finite forms of the verb have the following grammatical
categories:
1) Person and Number. These categories of the verb serve to
show the connection between the subject and the predicate of the
sentence — the subject agrees with the predicate in person and
number. We find three persons (the first, the second, and the
third ) and two numbers (the singular and the plural) in finite
verbs (see the formation of finite forms, "Verbs", §§ 9, 11, 15, 17,
22, 25, 29, 33, 38, 40, 43, 45).
2) Tense, Aspect and Phase (see "Verbs", § 7).
3) Voice (see "Verbs", §§ 61-63).
4) Mood (see "Verbs", §§ 122-125).
§ 5. The forms that serve to express the above mentioned
grammatical categories may be built up in different ways.
We find three basic forms that serve as a foundation for build-
ing up all the other forms of the English verb. These forms are:
1) the plain verb stem which is also often referred to as the infini-
tive without the particle to, 2) the Past Indefinite, and 3) the par-
ticiple.
According to the way of forming the Past Indefinite and the
participle, all verbs can be divided into two classes: regular and ir-
regular verbs.
With regular verbs, the Past Indefinite and the participle are
formed by adding the suffix -ed. It is pronounced [d] after vowels
and voiced consonants (e.g. played, answered, opened, closed), [t]
after voiceless consonants (e.g. looked, passed), and [id] after
verbs ending in [t] or [d] (e.g. wanted, wasted, ended, landed).
In writing the following spelling rules should be observed:
1) Verbs ending in -y preceded by a consonant change the -y
into -led (e.g. study — studied, envy — envied). But if the -y is
preceded by a vowel, it remains unchanged (e.g. play — played,
stay — stayed).
2) A final consonant is doubled if it is preceded by a short
stressed vowel or if a verb ends in a stressed -er (-ur) (e.g. stop —
stopped, admit — admitted, occur — occurred, prefer — pre-
ferred). But if the preceding vowel is long or unstressed, the final
consonant remains single (e.g. limit — limited, perform — per-
formed, conquer — conquered, appear — appeared).
3) A final -l is always doubled in British English (e.g. trav-
el — travelled, quarrel — quarrelled).
All other verbs should be regarded as irregular in modern En-
glish. They are a miscellaneous group comprising various patterns
(e.g. sing — sang — sung, write — wrote — written, send —
sent — sent, teach — taught — taught, etc.)- Some verbs have a
regular form by the side of an irregular one (e.g. learn — learnt
— learnt and also learn — learned — learned). A number of
verbs remain unchanged (e.g. cut — cut — cut, hit — hit — hit).
Two verbs take their forms from different roots and are called
suppletive systems. They are the verbs to be and to go. (For a
complete list of irregular verbs see Appendix.)
§ 6. The forms of the verb which are built up with the help of
the above described basic forms may be of two different kinds —
synthetic or analytical.
Synthetic forms are built up by a change in the word itself: by
means of suffixes (e.g. I work, he works, we worked), by means of
vowel change (e.g. I find, I found), and sometimes by combining
both means (e.g. I think, I thought).
Analytical forms consist of two components, e.g. He has
worked hard. The first component is an auxiliary verb which has
no lexical meaning — it expresses only grammatical meaning. The
second component is a notional verb which is the bearer of lexical
meaning ('носитель лексического значения'). The auxiliary verb
shows that has worked is the third person singular, the Indicative
Mood, the Active Voice. But the specific meaning of this particu-
lar form, that of the Present Perfect, results only from the combi-
nation of both components.
In the analytical form was written (as in: The letter was written
yesterday), written is the bearer of lexical meaning; was shows that
we are dealing with the third person singular, the Indicative Mood,
the Past Indefinite, But again the specific grammatical meaning of
this particular form, that of the Passive Voice, is expressed by the
whole combination of the auxiliary and the notional verb.
Thus an analytical form consists of two words — a structural
word and a notional word — which form a very close, inseparable
unit. It functions in English as the form of a single word by the
side of synthetic forms (e.g. he works, he has worked, he worked,
he was working, he had worked, etc.).
The auxiliary verb itself may be an analytical form (e.g. He
has been working. He will be working. The letter has been written,
etc.). Such forms may be called complex analytical forms.
FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB
Tense, Aspect and Phase
§ 7. Tense is the form of the verb which indicates the time of
the action. The category of tense in English is made up by a set of
forms opposed to each other in referring the event or state de-
scribed to the present, past or future.
Aspect is the form of the verb which serves to express the
manner in which the action is regarded. There are two opposing
sets of aspect forms in English — the Continuous forms and the
Non-Continuous (Indefinite) forms. The Non-Continuous (Indefi-
nite) forms have a very broad meaning, they have no specialized
aspect characteristics of their own and merely represent an action
as occurring. Conversely, the Continuous forms have a clear-cut
aspect characteristic, which is to represent an action in its tempo-
rary development. The Continuous forms have a number of other
concomitant meanings or overtones that go with the basic meaning
of process and duration. They are incompletion, simultaneity, viv-
idness of description, emotional colouring and emphasis.
Besides, there are the Perfect forms which are opposed to the
Non-Perfect forms. The latter have no definite grammatical char-
acteristics. The grammatical meaning of the Perfect forms is to
express retrospectiveness, which consists of two elements — prior-
ity and relevance. In some grammars this category has been given
the name phase.
The three grammatical categories of the English verb are so
closely merged together that it is impossible to treat them sepa-
rately.
We find the following finite forms in English: the Present In-
definite, the Present Continuous, the Present Perfect, the Present
Perfect Continuous, the Past Indefinite, the Past Continuous, the
Past Perfect, the Past Perfect Continuous, the Future Indefinite,
the Future Continuous, the Future Perfect, the Future Indefinite-
in-the-Past, the Future Continuous-in-the-Past, and the Future
Perfect-in-the-Past.
§ 8. 1) In discussing the use of English finite forms it is neces-
sary to understand that in most cases the choice is free: the form
is chosen in accordance with the meaning the speaker wishes to
convey and does not depend on the structure of the sentence, e.g.
He knows English. He knew English. He will know English.
In certain cases, however, the choice of the form is determined
by the structure of the sentence, usually the kind of clause in
which it is used. For example, the use of the Present Indefinite
with reference to the future in a clause of time or condition (a),
or the use of a finite form under the rules of the sequence of
tenses (b).
e.g. a) When you feel hungry, I'll bring you some sandwiches.
If I want anything I'll call you up.
b) She knew that Henry would be waiting for her.
I wondered if he had kept his promise.
In such cases we have the structurally dependent use of finite
forms.
In still other cases the choice of the finite form in a sub-
ordinate clause is determined not so much by the kind of clause
as by the lexical character of the head-word, i.e. the word in the
principal clause which the subordinate clause modifies or refers
to. For example, in object clauses subordinated to the verbs to
see to, to take care or to make sure the future forms are not
used.
e.g. He'll take care that she comes in time.
She saw to it that they had plenty of food in the house.
In such cases we have the lexically-dependent use of finite
forms.
2) Closely connected with the above notion is the absolute and
relative use of finite forms. The forms may refer an action direct-
ly to the present, past or future time. We are dealing in this case
with the absolute use of finite forms, which, as a rule, is structur-
ally independent.
But in certain types of clauses the verb form of the sub-
ordinate clause only shows whether the action of the clause is si-
multaneous with that of the principal clause, precedes it or follows
it. (These relations may be termed as simultaneity, priority and
posteriority respectively.) In this case we are dealing with the rela-
tive use of finite forms. It is usually structurally dependent (see,
for example, the rules of the sequence of tenses).
e.g. He discovered that his wife knew London far better than he did.
He knew that she had read his thoughts.
He thought that he would hate the place.
3) Last but not least, students of English should differentiate
between present-time contexts and past-time contexts.
In present-time contexts, i.e. in conversations, letters, newspa-
per and radio reports, lectures and scientific prose, the situation is
viewed from the moment of speaking. (The moment of speaking is
to be understood as present from the speaker's point of view but
not as the present moment.) Any finite form that is required by
the sense can be used in present-time contexts. The only reserva-
tion should be made for the Past Perfect and the Past Perfect Con-
tinuous and all the Future-in-the-Past forms which are, in present-
time contexts, mainly found in reported speech or thought.
In past-time contexts, i.e. in narration, the situation is viewed
from a past moment. Hence, the use of finite forms is restricted
only to past forms including the Future-in-the-Past.
The Present Indefinite
§ 9. The Present Indefinite is formed from the plain stem of
the verb. In the third person singular it has the suffix -s/-es which
is pronounced [z| after vowels and voiced consonants (e.g. plays,
opens), [s] after voiceless consonants (e.g. looks, puts), and [iz] af-
ter sibilants (e.g. closes, places, teaches, wishes, judges).
In writing the following spelling rules should be observed:
a) Verbs ending in -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -tch, x and -z take the suffix
-es (e.g. passes, pushes, watches). The suffix -es is also added to
verbs ending in о preceded by a consonant (e.g. goes).
b) Verbs ending in -y with a preceding consonant change the -y
into -ies (e.g. study — studies, try — tries, fly — flies). But if the
У is preceded by a vowel, the suffix -s is added (e.g. play — plays,
stay — stays).
The affirmative form of the Present Indefinite is a synthetic
form (e.g. I work, he works, etc.). But the interrogative and nega-
tive forms are built up analytically, by means of the auxiliary verb
do in the Present Indefinite and the infinitive of the notional verb
without the particle to (e.g. Do you work? Does he work? I do not
work. He does not work, etc.). In spoken English the contracted
negative forms don't and doesn't should be used.
The Present Indefinite may have a special affirmative form
which is used for emphasis. This emphatic form is built up analyti-
cally, by means of the Present Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to
do followed by the infinitive of the notional verb without the par-
ticle to. The auxiliary verb is heavily stressed in this case (e.g. I
'do insist on it. He 'does insist on it).
§ 10. The Present Indefinite is used in the following cases:
1) When it serves to express recurrent (a) or permanent (b) ac-
tions in the present.
a) We find recurrent actions with terminative verbs. They are,
as a matter of fact, point (instantaneous) actions repeated a num-
ber of times. This series of recurrent actions may include or ex-
clude the actual moment of speaking.
This use of the Present Indefinite is often associated with such
adverbial modifiers of frequency as often, seldom, sometimes, occa-
sionally, always, never, ever, every year (week, month, day), usual-
ly, once {twice, three times) a year, daily, on Sundays (Mondays,
etc.) and the like. But it may also be found without any indica-
tions of time.
e.g. He wakes up around six o'clock and has a cup of coffee.
He doesn't usually ring up early in the morning.
"Do you often come to these parties?" inquired Jordan of the
girl beside her.
The charwoman comes in daily.
b) We find permanent actions with durative verbs. They gener-
ally indicate continuous, uninterrupted processes which naturally
include the present moment. Such actions give a general character-
istic to the person or thing denoted by the subject. Time indica-
tions are not obligatory in this case.
e.g. Her son works near here and so, after her husband's death,
she came down to live here and he boards with her.
That old man gave me a surprise. He's seventy-five, and he
doesn't walk, he runs.
I teach English and History at a college, and I live with my
parents.
I hate authority. It spoils the relations between parent and
child.
Like all young men, he sleeps like a log.
As is seen from the above examples, the difference between
the two main uses of the Present Indefinite rests on the differ-
ence in the lexical character of the verb. In many cases, however,
owing to the context or situation, the difference appears blurred
and it becomes difficult to define the lexical character of the verb.
In other words, we are dealing with marginal cases in this instance —
a permanent characteristic is given through recurrent actions.
e.g. I always talk too much when I'm nervous.
I sometimes play the piano for five hours a day.
He usually walks to the corner with Phil.
Edith always gets away with things.
Note. The Present Indefinite is often said to express a general statement or a
universal truth. In this case it also denotes either a recurrent action or a perma-
nent process and thus it does not differ in principle from the two above described
uses of the Present Indefinite.
e.g. Domestic animals return to their homes.
Romance only dies with life.
Still waters run deep, (a proverb)
A mother's love means devotion, unselfishness, sacrifice.
2) When it is used to express a succession of point actions tak-
ing place at the time of speaking. In this meaning it is used in
stage directions or by radio and TV commentators in describing
sports events, public functions, etc. That means that this use of
the Present Indefinite is stylistically restricted.
e.g. a) In stage directions:
REV. S. Good night. (They shake hands. As he passes Vivie
he shakes hands with her also and bids her good-night.
Then, in booming command, to Frank) Come along, Sir,
at once.
b) In comments (here on a TV film about Chi-Chi, the giant
panda, who returns home after her stay in the Moscow
Zoo):
"Chi-Chi is in the pen. She walks over to the travelling box.
Chi-Chi climbs on the rock. The crowd moves closer to
Chi-Chi."
с) In demonstrations:
Now I peel the apples, slice them and put into the dish.
Then I whip the cream until thick and pour it over the
apples.
3) The Present Indefinite is sometimes used to express a single
action going on at the moment of speaking where normally the
Present Continuous is used. This occurs in two different cases:
a) The use of the Present Indefinite becomes obligatory with
stative verbs. (For the list see "Verbs", § 2.)
e.g. I quite understand what you mean.
She sipped her coffee and pulled a face. "It tastes horrible
tonight."
He wants to see you for a minute.
"Do you object, Dad?" said the girl.
b) The Present Indefinite is also used for an instantaneous ac-
tion which takes place at the moment of speaking but it is not
viewed in its progress. The speaker just names the occurrence it-
self, the action as such.
e.g. "I repeat, the girl has been extremely impertinent," he said.
You leave me no choice.
I swear it to you!
I refuse to listen to you. You talk such nonsense.
"Where shall we have our meal?" "Anywhere you like."
"I choose the kitchen then."
"You've always treated me badly and now you insult me,"
Maurice shouted in his turn.
This use of the Present Indefinite is also often found in ex-
clamatory and interrogative sentences.
e.g. My dear, how you throw about your money!
She said: "How swiftly the years fly!"
"May I help you to wash the baby?" "It is very kind of you.
Ah, how he kicks! Has he splashed you?"
Why do you talk like that to me?
4) The Present Indefinite may be used to express future ac-
tions. This occurs in four different cases:
a) Its use is structurally dependent (see "Verbs", §8), i.e.
compulsory, in subordinate clauses of time, condition and conces-
sion when the action refers to the future (in such cases we usual-
ly find the Future Indefinite, or modal verbs, or the Imperative
Mood in the principal clause).
Clauses of time referring to the future may be introduced by
the conjunctions when, while, till, until, before, after, as soon as
and once.
e.g. Will you wait while I look through the manuscript?
She won't go to bed till you come.
I shall have a look at his paper when I get it.
Clauses of condition are introduced by the conjunctions if, un-
less, on condition {that), provided {providing) and in case.
e.g. If you send me a line to my club, it'll be forwarded at once.
But I must have the doctor handy, in case she feels worse.
Note. In clauses other than those of time and condition, the Future Indefinite
is used even if these clauses are introduced by the conjunctions if and when.
e.g. I wonder if the tape recorder will eventually replace the record player.
The important thing to know is when the book will come out.
Clauses of concession are introduced by the conjunctions even
if, even though, no matter how, whenever, whatever, however, etc.
e.g. Even if he hates me I shall never do him any harm.
I'll have dinner whenever it's ready.
b) Its use is lexically dependent in object clauses after to see
(to), to take care and to make (be) sure.
e.g. I'll see that the lady is properly looked after.
Her husband will look after her, and make sure no harm
comes to her.
He will take care that no one interferes with them.
c) The use of the Present Indefinite with reference to the im-
mediate future is structurally dependent in some special questions.
e.g. What do we do next? ('Что будем сейчас делать?')
Where do we go now? ('Куда сейчас пойдем?')
What happens next? ('Что сейчас будет?')
You look ill. Why don't you go home? ("Ты плохо выгля-
дишь. Почему бы тебе не пойти домой?')
d) The Present Indefinite may be used to indicate a future ac-
tion which is certain to take place according to a timetable, pro-
gramme, schedule, command or arrangement worked out for a per-
son or persons officially. In this case the sentence usually contains
an indication of time.
e.g. "Is Mr Desert in?" "No, Sir. Mr Desert has just started for the
East. His ship sails tomorrow." (according to the timetable)
Our tourist group sleep at the Globo hotel this night and start for
Berlin tomorrow morning, (according to the itinerary)
"Can you tell me what time the game starts today, please?"
(according to the schedule)
When does Ted return from his honeymoon? {according to his
official leave of absence)
You see, in six weeks his regiment goes back to the front, (ac-
cording to the command)
Note. It should be noted that this use of the Present Indefinite is not inter-
changeable with the Present Continuous. (See "Verbs", § 11.)
5) The Present Indefinite is used in literary style to describe a
succession of actions in the past, usually to make a vivid narrative
of past events. This application of the Present Indefinite is often
called in grammars the historic or dramatic present.
e.g. She arrives full of life and spirit. And about a quarter of an
hour later she sits down in a chair, says she doesn't feel
well, gasps a bit and dies.
The Present Continuous
§ 11. The Present Continuous is an analytical form which is
built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Present Indefi-
nite and the ing-form of the notional verb (e.g. I am working. He
is working, etc.). The same auxiliary is used in the interrogative
and the negative form (e.g. Are you working? Is he working? We
are not working. He is not working, etc.). In spoken English the
contracted forms I'т , he's and we're should be used in affirma
tive sentences and isn't and aren't in negative sentences.
The ing-form, is built up by adding the suffix -ing to the stem
of the verb (e.g. speak — speaking).
In writing the following spelling rules should be observed:
a) A mute -e at the end of the verb is dropped before the suffix
-ing (e.g. close — closing, make — making).
b) A final consonant is doubled if it is preceded by a short
stressed vowel or if a verb ends in a stressed -er (-ur) (e.g. cut —
cutting, begin — beginning, prefer — preferring, occur — occur-
ring),
c) A final -I is always doubled in British English (e.g. travel —
travelling, quarrel — quarrelling).
d) A final -y is preserved no matter what sound it is preceded
by (e.g. study — studying, stay — staying).
e) A final ie changes into -y (e.g. tie — tying, lie — lying).
§ 12. The Present Continuous is used with dynamic verbs in
the following cases:
1) To express an action going on at the present moment, i.e.
the moment of speaking.
The precise time limits of the action are not known, its begin-
ning and its end are not specified. The indication of time is not
necessary in this case though occasionally such adverbial modifiers
as now and at present are found.
e.g. "Do you know where Philip is?" "I expect he is talking to
Mother."
I asked: "Is anything new happening?"
"Oh, hullo," he said. "Do you want to see me?" "No, thanks.
I'm looking for my father."
Tears flowed slowly down her cheeks. "What are you crying
for?"
"Oh, mummy! The eggs are burning! The coffee is boiling over!
Where is the large tray? Where do you keep things?" cried
Adeline.
2) To express an action going on at the present period. In this
case the precise time limits of the action are not known either. Be-
sides, the action may or may not be going on at the actual moment
of speaking. As in the previous case, indications of time are not
necessary here either.
e.g. But you've not been in England much lately. Public opinion
is changing. I must tell you about it.
"And what are you doing in Geneva?" "I'm writing a play,"
said Ashenden.
The great detective has retired from business. He is growing
roses in a little cottage in Dorking.
I stay indoors most of the time. I'm catching up with my
studies.
They're getting ready to move to their new house.
Sometimes this Present Continuous shows that for the time be-
ing a certain action happens to be the most important and charac-
teristic occupation for its doer (for this see the last four examples
above).
Note. Notice the phrase to be busy doing something. It is synonymous in
meaning with the Present Continuous in the first and second cases of its use. The
phrase is very common in English.
e.g. Father is busy cutting the grass in the garden.
Nigel is busy getting himself into Parliament.
3) To express actions generally characterizing the person de-
noted by the subject, bringing out the person's typical traits. Of-
ten the adverbial modifiers always and constantly are found in
these sentences,
e.g. People are always blaming their circumstances for what they
are.
"You're always showing off," she said to her brother in a loud
whisper.
Her husband retorted: "You're constantly complaining that you
have too much to do."
The Present Continuous in this case imparts a subjective, emo-
tionally coloured tone. When no emotional colouring is implied,
the Present Indefinite is used to give an objective characteristic
(see "Verbs", § 10, b).
Cf.: Old uncle Harry is always thinking he's going to be ruined.
You people always think I've a bag of money.
Note. Note the following sentence patterns, in which recurrent actions are
made emotionally coloured by the use of the Present Continuous.
e.g- I wonder if all grown-up people play in that childish way when nobody is looking?
When Adeline is grinning we know she is happy.
When I see him he is always eating something.
4) To express actions which will take place in the near future
due to one's previous decision. For that reason the action is re-
garded as something definitely settled. We usually find an indica-
tion of future time in this case (see also "Verbs", § 47).
e.g. "I am sailing early next month," he said.
Are you dining out tonight?
He is having a meeting with the men this afternoon.
"I'm staying the night at Green Street," said Val.
§ 13. As has been said above, the Present Continuous is used with
dynamic verbs. However, some stative verbs (see "Verbs", § 2, 2)
when they change their meaning can be used in the Continuous form.
e.g. "Are you seeing Clare tonight?" she asked.
He said, "I'm seeing you home."
"Are you going in the water?" Sybil said. "I'm seriously con-
sidering it."
Jane turned away. "The thing to do," she said, "is to pay no
attention to him. He is just being silly."
Note. Notice that in cases like those above the verb to be is close to to behave
in meaning.
Special attention should be paid to the verb to have which in
its original meaning 'to possess' does not admit of the continuous
form.
e.g. Suddenly he came in and said: "Have you a letter for me,
postman?"
But with a change of its meaning, the use of the continuous
form becomes the rule if it is required by the sense. Namely, it oc-
curs when to have is part of set phrases, as in: to have a bath, to
have a good holiday, to have a party, to have a smoke, to have a
walk, to have coffee, to have dinner, to have something done, to
have to do something, to have trouble and the like.
e.g. "Where is Mr Franklin?" he asked. "He's having a bath.
He'll be right out."
I know you are having your difficulties.
My village will be as pretty as a picture. Trees along the
street. You see, I'm having them planted already.
Some of the other verbs included in the list of stative verbs
may also be occasionally used in the continuous form. Then the ac-
tions indicated by these verbs express great intensity of feeling.
e.g. "You'll find it a great change to live in New York." "At the
present time I'm hating it," she said in an expressionless
tone.
"Strange," he said, "how, when people are either very young
or very old, they are always wanting to do something they
should not do."
Dear Amy, I've settled in now and I am liking my new life very
much.
§ 14. Some durative verbs, for example, verbs of bodily sensa-
tion (to ache, to feel, to hurt, to itch, etc.) and such verbs as to
wear, to look (= to seem), to shine and some other can be used ei-
ther in the Present Indefinite or in the Present Continuous with
little difference in meaning.
Cf. You're looking well, cousin Joan.
You look quite happy today.
"I know what you are feeling, Roy," she said. "We all feel ex-
actly the same."
The Present Perfect
§ 15. The Present Perfect is an analytical form which is built
up by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the Present Indefinite
and the participle of the notional verb (e.g. I have worked. He has
worked, etc.)- (On the formation of the participle see "Verbs", § 5
and Appendix.) The same auxiliary is used to form the interroga-
tive and negative forms (e.g. Have you worked? Has he worked?
It has not worked. They have not worked). In spoken English the
contracted forms I've, he's, she's, it's, we've, you've and they've
are used in affirmative sentences and haven't and hasn't in nega-
tive sentences.
§ 16. The Present Perfect falls within the time sphere of the
, present and is not used in narration where reference is made to
past events. It follows from that that the Present Perfect is used
in present-time contexts, i.e. conversations, newspaper and radio
reports, lectures and letters.
The Present Perfect has three distinct uses. They will be fur-
ther referred to as Present Perfect I, Present Perfect II and
Present Perfect III.
1) Present Perfect I is the Present Perfect proper. It is used to
express an accomplished action which is viewed from the moment
of speaking as part of the present situation. Attention in this case
is centred on the action itself. The circumstances under which the
action occurred appear unimportant and immaterial at the moment
and need not be mentioned.
e.g. He is very sensitive, I have discovered that.
I've had a talk with him. He says he has all the proof he wants.
Such news! We've bought a racehorse.
"I've spoiled everything," she said.
His secretary said tactfully: "I've put off your other appoint-
ments for a while."
It should be especially noted that though the action expressed
in the Present Perfect is regarded as already accomplished, it be-
longs to the present-time sphere and is treated as a present action.
It becomes obvious from the periphrasis:
I've heard the doctor's opinion —> I know the doctor's opinion.
She's gone off to the woods —> She is in the woods.
A similar idea of an accomplished action is also traced in such
expressions referring to the present as He is awake. I'm late. The
work is done. The door is locked, etc.
Since it is the action itself that the Present Perfect makes im-
portant, it is frequently used to open up conversations (newspaper
and radio reports, or letters) or to introduce a new topic in them.
However, if the conversation (report or letter) continues on the
same subject, going into detail, the Present Perfect usually changes
to the Past Indefinite, as the latter is used to refer to actions or sit-
uations which are definite in the mind of the speaker. Usually (but
not necessarily) some concrete circumstances of the action (time,
place, cause, purpose, manner, etc.) are mentioned in this case.
e.g. "You are all right. You are coming round. Are you feeling
better?"
"I'm quite all right. But what has happened? Where am I?"
"You're in a dug-out, You were buried by a bomb from a
trench-mortar."
"Oh, was I? But how did I get here?"
"Someone dragged you. I am afraid some of your men were
killed, and several others were wounded."
"Pussy Cat, Pussy Cat, "Pussy Cat, Pussy Cat,
Where have you been?" What did you see there?"
"I've been to London "I saw a little mouse
To look at the Queen." Under her chair."
As is seen from the above examples, the Present Perfect is
used to name a new action, whereas the Past Indefinite is used to
refer back to a definite action and the attention in this case is of-
ten drawn rather to the circumstances attending the action than to
the action itself.
Note. The functions of the Present Perfect and the Past Indefinite may be in a
way compared with those of the indefinite and the definite articles.
The indefinite article is used when an object is just named (e.g. Glue me a
book. She is a teacher. I have a brother). Likewise the Present Perfect serves to
name an accomplished action (see the examples above).
Both the definite article and the Past Indefinite are used when an object or an
action, respectively, is definite in the mind of the speaker (e.g. The book is on the
table. The teacher returned the compositions,)
As has been said, Present Perfect I is mainly used to introduce
a new topic. But it may also be used to sum up a situation.
e.g. "I've done bad things," I said, "but I don't think I could have
done some of the things you've done."
"You've so often been helpful in the past." "I've tried," said
Joseph.
We've all been young once, you know. We've all felt it, Roy.
"I'm afraid I've been horribly boring and talked too much,"
she said as she pressed my hand.
"Agatha has told me everything. How cleverly you have both
kept your secret,"
"You and your wife have been very good to me. Thank you."
In accordance with its main function — just to name an ac-
complished action — the Present Perfect is generally used when
[the time of the action is not given.
e.g. He sat down. "You have not changed," he said. "No? What
have you come for?" "To discuss things."
"Mr Руке has told me such wonderful things about you.
Walter."
"I haven't thought about it," she returned.
However, sometimes, even though there may be no indication
of past time in the sentence, the Present Perfect cannot be used
because reference is made to happenings which are definite in the
mind of the speaker (either because the action has already been
mentioned or because the situation is very well known to the lis-
tener). In this case the use of the Past Indefinite is very common.
e.g. Did you sleep well? I didn't understand you.
Did you enjoy the play? Did you have a good journey
Did you like the book? (trip, ride, flight, day, time)?
What did you say? Did you see the accident?
Did you hear what he said? I'm sorry I lost my temper.
I didn't hear your question.
It is possible, however, to use the Present Perfect when there
is an adverbial modifier of time in the sentence that denotes a pe-
riod of time which is not over yet, e.g. today, this morning, this
week, this month, this year, etc.
e.g. What Rosanna has done tonight is clear enough, (Tonight is
not over yet.)
This year we have taken only one assistant. (This year is not
over.)
I have had only one new dress this summer," exclaimed
June. (This summer is not over yet.)
Conversely, if the period is over or reference is made to a par-
ticular past point of time within that period, the Past Indefinite
is used.
e.g. "Did you see the letter in the "Times" this morning? (It is
no longer morning.) "No. I haven't had time to look at a
paper today," (Today is not over yet.)
"Whom do you think I passed in Richmond Park today!" (To-
day is not over, but the action took place at a particular
point of time within today, namely when the person was in
Richmond Park.)
"I wasn't very well this morning, but I'm perfectly all right
now." (This morning is over.)
Note. It should be noted that sometimes an adverbial modifier of place points
to a past period of time.
e.g. Did you see him at the theatre? (= when you were at the theatre)
I ran into her in Oxford Street. (= when I was in Oxford Street)
The Present Perfect may be found with certain adverbs of in-
definite time and frequency such as just ('только что'), not ... yet,
already, before, always, ever, never, often, seldom, recently, late
ly, of late, etc.
e.g. She's just missed being run over.
I haven't even had coffee yet.
He has never made a sixpence by any of his books.
Have you heard of him lately?
"What is the point?" "I've made it clear enough before."
However, the use of the Present Perfect is by no means obliga-
tory with the above mentioned adverbs, because any other finite
form may be used with these adverbs if it is required by the situa-
tion.
e.g. He was studying to be a pianist, but he never touches the pi-
ano now.
He noticed that the leaves of the chestnut were already begin-
ning to turn yellow and brown.
His room was not yet furnished, and he liked it to remain
empty.
Note 1. Note the use of the Past Indefinite with just now.
e.g. I told you just now I had never had time for much fun.
Note 2. Russian students of English, under the influence of the Russian lan-
guage, tend to use the adverb already nearly in every sentence containing the
Present Perfect. That is not characteristic of the English language as it is suffi-
cient to use the Present Perfect alone to express an accomplished action. The addi-
tion of already appears redundant in many cases.
It follows from the rules above that the Present Perfect is not
used when there is an indication of past time in the sentence. It is
the Past Indefinite that is used in this case because the mention
of the definite past time ties the action to the past-time sphere as
it were, and it cannot break through to the present.
e.g. "Put on your clothes at once and come with me." "But what
is it? Has something happened?" "I'm afraid so. Your
husband was taken ill this afternoon."
"M. Poirot, you have no idea of what I have gone through."
"I know your wife died just over a year ago."
Similarly, it is the Past Indefinite that is used in questions in-
troduced by when.
e.g. When did you actually arrive?
When did you change your mind?
The Past Indefinite is also used in special questions beginning
with where and how when they refer to the past events. The
Present Perfect is not common here because the attention in such
sentences is drawn to the circumstances of the action rather than
to the occurrence itself, which means that the speaker has a defi-
nite action in mind.
e.g. "Where did your uncle receive his guests?" "Right here."
"How did he get in?" I asked, and Evans said, "Oh, he has a
key."
"Where is my hat? Where did I leave my hat?"
Note. The question Where have you been? can be asked of the person who has
just come.
e.g. 'Hello, Mum. I'm sorry I'm late" "Where have you been?"
In all other cases it should be Where were you!
e.g. "Did the party go off nicely?" "I don't know. I wasn't there." "Where were
you?'
In special questions beginning with interrogative words other
than those mentioned above (e.g. who, what, why, what ... for and
other), both the Present Perfect and the Past Indefinite are possi-
ble. The choice depends on the meaning to be conveyed. If refer-
ence is made to an action which is past or definite in the minds of
the people speaking, or if there is a change of scene, the Past In-
definite is used; if reference is made to an action which is still
valid as part of the present situation, the Present Perfect should
be used.
e.g. "What have I done against you?" she burst out defiantly.
"Nothing." "Then why can't we get on?"
"I know she gave him a good scolding." "What did he do?"
Looking up at her he said: "Dorothy's gone to a garden par-
ty." "I know. Why haven't you gone too?"
Why didn't you speak to my father yourself on the boat?
Note 1. As to general questions, the Present Perfect as well as the Past Indefi
nite may be found in them because they may inquire either about new facts which
are important for the present or about events that are definite in the mind of the
speaker.
Note 2. In the following example the verb to be is used in the meaning 'to vis-
it', 'to go'. Hence it takes the preposition to after it. It is noteworthy that to be ac-
quires this meaning only if used in the Present Perfect or the Past Perfect.
e.g. Renny said: "He has been to Ireland too"
"Have you been to a symphony concert?" he continued.
Note 3. The combination has/have got may be used as the Present Perfect of
the verb to get (which is not very common, though).
e.g. I don't know what's got into Steven today.
He has got into financial difficulties and needs cash.
But it is often used as a set phrase which has two different meanings — 'to
possess' (a) and 'to be obliged' (b).
e.g. a) "Have you got a telephone?" she looked round the room.
"I don't think we've got any choice," said Francis,
b) "No" he said loudly, "there are some risks you've got to take."
"It doesn't matter what caused it," said Martin. "We have got to take the
consequences"
In this case the time reference also changes — has/have got is the Present Per-
fect only in form; it actually indicates a present state of things.
Note 4. She is gone is a survival of the old Present Perfect which was formed
with certain verbs by means of the auxiliary to be. In present-day English it is to be
treated as a set phrase meaning 'she is not here any longer'.
2) Present Perfect II serves to express an action which began
before the moment of speaking and continues into it or up to it.
This grammatical meaning is mainly expressed by the Present Per-
fect Continuous (see "Verbs", § 18). However, the Present Perfect
Non-Continuous is found in the following cases:
a) Its use is compulsory with stative verbs (see "Verbs", §2, 2).
e.g. I've known the young lady all her life.
I've loved her since she was a child.
"But we've been in conference for two hours," he said. "It's
time we had a tea break."
b) With some dynamic verbs of durative meaning the Present
Perfect is sometimes used instead of the Present Perfect Continu-
ous with little difference in meaning.
e.g. "It's a pretty room, isn't it?" "I've slept in it for fifteen
years."
"I'm glad to meet you," he said. "I've waited a long while and
began to be afraid I'd not have the opportunity."
He's looked after Miss Gregg for many years now.
As to terminative verbs, they can only have the meaning of
Present Perfect I and never of Present Perfect II.
Since it is often difficult to draw the line between durative and
terminative verbs, it is recommended that students of English
should use the Present Perfect Continuous with all dynamic verbs
to express an action begun in the past and continued into the
present.
c) The Present Perfect is preferred to the Present Perfect Con-
tinuous in negative sentences, when it is the action itself that is
completely negated (see also "Verbs", § 19).
e.g. "Shall we sit down a little? We haven't sat here for ages."
"I was just having a look at the paper," he said. "I haven't
read the paper for the last two days."
"She hasn't written to me for a year," said Roy.
It is noteworthy that Present Perfect II is associated with cer-
tain time indications — either the whole period of the duration of
the action is marked or its starting point. In the former case we
find different time indications. Some expressions are introduced
by the preposition for and sometimes in (e.g. for an hour, for
many years, for the last few days, for a long time, for so long, for
ages, in years, in a long while, etc.)- Other expressions have no
prepositions (e.g. these three years, all this week, all along, so
long, all oneys life, etc.).
e.g. The picture has been mine for years and years.
I've felt differently about him for some time.
"Why haven't I seen you all these months?" said Hankins.
We haven't had any fun in a long while.
I've wanted to go to the sea all my life.
The starting point of the action is indicated by the adverb
since, a prepositional phrase with since or a clause introduced by
the conjunction since.
e.g. "But, Dinny, when did you meet him?" "Only ten days ago,
but I've seen him every day since."
The sun has been in the room since the morning.
But she has seemed so much better since you started the injec-
tions.
In the clause introduced by since the Past Indefinite is used to
indicate the starting point of an action (see the example above).
However, we sometimes find in both parts of such complex sen-
tences two parallel actions which began at the same time in the
past and continue into the present. In this case the Present Perfect
is used in both clauses,
e.g. I've loved you since I've known you.
It should be noted that the indication of time is indispensable to
Present Perfect II because otherwise its meaning in most cases
would be changed. It would come to denote an accomplished action
which is part of the present situation (for this see Present Perfect I).
Cf. I've been taught to do it for three years.
I have been taught to do it.
But we met him here about a month ago. We haven't heard
from him since.
We haven't heard from him.
Care should be taken to distinguish between the use of the
Present Perfect and the Past Indefinite when the period of dura-
tion is expressed by a prepositional phrase with for. If the period of
duration belongs to the past time sphere, the Past Indefinite should
be used. It is only if the period of duration comes close to the mo-
ment of speaking or includes it that the Present Perfect is used.
Cf. "I have lived like this," he said, "for two years, and I can't
stand it any more."
"I teach History at a secondary school. I went to the Universi-
ty here for four years and got a degree."
The same is true of questions beginning with how long.
"Are you married?" "Yes." "How long have you been mar-
ried?"
"Are you married?" "No. I'm divorced." "How long were you
married?"
3) Present Perfect III is found in adverbial clauses of time in-
troduced by the conjunctions when, before, after, as soon as, till
and until where it is used to express a future action. It shows that
the action of the subordinate clause will be accomplished before
the action of the principal clause (which is usually expressed by
the Future Indefinite). This use of the Present Perfect is structur-
ally dependent as it is restricted only to the above mentioned type
of clauses.
e.g. "You'll find," said Fred, "that you'll long for home when you
have left it."
As soon as we have had some tea, Ann, we shall go to inspect
your house.
I'll take you back in my car but not till I've made you some
coffee.
Sometimes the Present Indefinite is found in this type of claus-
es in the same meaning as the Present Perfect. The choice of the
form depends on the lexical meaning of the verb. With durative
verbs the Present Perfect is necessary.
e.g. When you have had your tea, we'll see about it.
I can tell you whether the machine is good or bad when I
have tried it.
With terminative verbs the use of both forms is possible,
Cf. He says when he retires he'll grow roses.
When I've finished this I must go and put the baby to bed.
Mother will stay at home until we return.
"Your mother wouldn't like me." "You can't possibly say that
until you've met her."
The Present Perfect Continuous
§ 17. The Present Perfect Continuous is an analytical form
which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the
Present Perfect and the ing-form of the notional verb (e.g. I have
been working. He has been working, etc.). {On the formation of
the ing-form see "Verbs", § 11.)
In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed be-
fore the subject (e.g. Have you been working? Has she been work-
ing?, etc.). In the negative form the negative particle not is placed
after the first auxiliary (e.g. We have not been working. They have
not been working, etc.). In spoken English the contracted forms
I've, he's, she's, it's, we've, you've and they've are used in affir-
mative sentences and hasn't and haven't in negative sentences.
§ 18. The Present Perfect Continuous falls within the time
sphere of the present. Hence it is not used in narration where refer-
ence is made to past events. It is found in present-time contexts, i.e.
conversations, newspaper and radio reports, lectures and letters.
The Present Perfect Continuous has two uses which will be
further referred to as Present Perfect Continuous I and Present
Perfect Continuous II.
1) Present Perfect Continuous I serves to express an action
which began before the moment of speaking and continues into it
or up to it. In this meaning it is parallel to Present Perfect II and
may be used with the same indications of time as described in
"Verbs", § 16.
e.g. He said he was in town and wanted to see me. That was a
couple of hours ago and I have been waiting ever since.
"We've been staying here nearly a week. "I hope you are not
thinking of leaving." "Her ladyship is waiting to see you and
Sergeant Cuff,", he said. "How long has she been waiting?"
I wish you'd go, Chris! We've been getting on each other's
nerves lately.
"I have been thinking about it for a long time," said Erik
frankly.
I've been sitting here quite a while.
He's your elder brother. But you are the one who looks after
him. You've been making excuses for him all your life.
Present Perfect Continuous I may be used with both durative
and terminative verbs.
As has been said, Present Perfect II can also be used in this
meaning with durative verbs, though it is less common (see also
"Verbs", § 16, 2) and it is never used with terminative verbs.
It stands to reason that the Present Perfect Continuous is not
common with stative verbs.
2) Present Perfect Continuous II serves to express an action
which was in progress quite recently and which in one way or an-
other affects the present situation, explains or gives reasons for
the state of things at the present moment.
The precise time limits of the action (i.e. its beginning and its
end) are not specified. This use of the Present Perfect Continuous
seems to be prevailing over its use described under I. Besides, in
this meaning the Present Perfect Continuous is not parallel to
Present Perfect II.
e.g. "Your shoes are wet." "I've been walking in the rain."
She said: "I've been talking to your boy-friend, Adeline, and
I like him."
She's been washing her hair, but it may be dry now.
He began abruptly: "I've been thinking about what you told
me."
Don't tell your mother what I've been saying.
He clasped the massive woollen underwear against his chest.
"Just what I need," he declared. "The moths have been
eating mine."
What have you been doing?
Then Phil called: "I'll be right down. I've been shutting the
windows."
The Present Perfect Continuous in this case is, as a rule, not
associated with any indications of time (see the examples above).
It is only occasionally found with indications of a recent period of
time or with the adverb just.
e.g. Augustus has been dining with us tonight.
I have been discussing it with Arabella this evening.
I've just been having such a delightful chat with Margaret.
§ 19. In negative sentences the Present Perfect Continuous is
not common. Present Perfect II is preferred in this case (for exam-
ples see "Verbs", § 16, 2c).
However, the Present Perfect Continuous is also found in nega-
tive sentences but in this case the negation does not refer to the
action itself but to the circumstances attending the action.
e.g. "We don't wish to overtire the boys." "A walk would only do
them good," Jenny said. "They haven't been sleeping at all
well recently." (which means that they have been sleeping
but their sleep has not been sound enough)
I'm sorry I'm late. I hope you have not been waiting for me.
(which means that I know you have been waiting but I hope
it is not for me)
§ 20. Present Perfect Continuous I and particularly Present
Perfect Continuous II are sometimes found with stative verbs.
e.g. "There's one thing I've been meaning to ask you, Miles," Fred
said one afternoon.
"Hello," she said. "I'm glad you're having lunch here. I've
been wanting to talk to you."
I've been noticing these changes in you ever since you got
that university degree.
A little break like this is what she's been needing all these
years.
"Do you know Mr Nesfield?" "Oh, yes. We have been seeing
him every day."
§ 21. Note the following sentence patterns:
a) He has been reading since he came.
b) He has been reading since he has been working in the library.
In the first pattern the action in the subordinate clause intro-
duced by since is expressed by the Past Indefinite and serves to in-
dicate only the starting point of the action in the principal clause.
In the second pattern the action of the subordinate clause is
parallel to that of the principal clause as they both began at the
same time in the past and continue into the moment of speaking.
In this case the Present Perfect Continuous is used .in both claus-
es (or Present Perfect II, with stative verbs).
The Past Indefinite
§ 22. The Past Indefinite is a synthetic form (e.g. I worked.
He sang). (On the formation of the Past Indefinite see "Verbs", §
ft 5 and Appendix.) But the interrogative and negative forms are
built up analytically, by means of the auxiliary verb to do in the
Past Indefinite and the infinitive of the notional verb without the
particle to (e.g. Did you work? Did he work? We did not work.
She did not work). In spoken English the contracted form didn't
is used in negative sentences.
The Past Indefinite may have a special form which is used for
emphasis. This emphatic form is built up analytically, by means of
the Past Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to do followed by the in-
finitive of the notional verb without the particle to. The auxiliary
is heavily stressed in this case (e.g. I 'did insist on it. He 'did in-
sist on it).
§ 23. The Past Indefinite is commonly used to express a past
action. It may be found in present-time contexts as well as in past-
time contexts.
The Past Indefinite is used in the following cases:
1) To express a single action which took place in the past. The
time of the action is often indicated. It is usually an indication of
the past time. Yet the Past Indefinite may also be found with such
adverbial modifiers of time as this morning, today, tonight, etc.
(For details see also "Verbs", § 16, 1.)
e.g. Things came to a crisis in July.
My mother first heard of him when I was a mere child.
I only met her six months ago.
I had a letter from Willy yesterday.
Why, I saw the announcement in the paper this morning.
The time of the action may be implied in the situation through
the mention of the place of the action or other attending circum-
stances.
e.g. I ate turnips in Germany.
Did you belong to any society at the University?
"What a lot you know," said Miss Marple, "about the private
lives of film stars. Did you learn it all in California?"
Croft informed us at breakfast that you told him to bring
Mrs Warren and Vivie over here today.
He built that place for Lord Henry.
But sometimes the mention of the time or the place of the ac-
tion appears unnecessary because reference is made to a particular
action which is definite in the mind of the speaker and the hearer
(see also "Verbs", § 16, 1).
e.g. Sorry! I didn't mean to hurt you.
I slept very badly.
You told it beautifully, Grace.
"Did he say anything?" "I didn't quite catch what he said."
The definiteness of the action in the mind of the speaker is to
be regarded as the most prominent feature of this use of the Past
Indefinite. It becomes particularly obvious when compared with
the use of Present Perfect I (see "Verbs", § 16, 1).
2) To express an action which occupied a whole period of time
now over. That means that the action after taking place for some
time came to an end in the past. (Compare with the use of Present
Perfect II. See "Verbs", § 16, 2.) The period of time is usually in-
dicated in the sentence by means of adverbial phrases with the
prepositions for or during and synonymous expressions.
e.g. I admit I was wrong. Remember how we quarrelled about it?
We quarrelled for three days.
Last May I spent two weeks in London.
We stayed in the garden for a long time.
For twenty years you lived without your child, without a
thought of your child.
Note. Questions beginning with how long may accordingly contain either the
Past Indefinite or Present Perfect II depending on whether the period of time im-
plied is already over or has not yet expired,
e.g. Maurice turned on the light and saw his brother sitting in the armchair. "How
long have you been here?" he asked in surprise.
"We really had a wonderful time in Brighton." "How long did you stay there?"
3) In narration to express a succession of actions.
e.g. So I went up the stairs. I bathed. I changed. I made myself
up like the Queen of Sheba. Then I went downstairs and
cooked and served dinner for three. Then I entertained Mr
Stent. Then I wished him a very good night. Then I wished
Jack good-bye. Then I took my suit-case and walked out.
We went to the park and I sat down on a chair and took the
baby out of the pram and a big dog came along and put its
head on my knee and she clutched its ear, tugged it.
I found some matches, climbed on the table, lit the gas lamp,
then settled down to read.
Consecutive actions may be either single accomplished actions
(as in the examples above) or actions of some duration occupying
a whole period of time. The latter is usually indicated in the sen-
tence by means of prepositional phrases with for, during, from ...
to, or by means of the words all day, all night and the like.
e.g. She looked at him for a long time and then shrugged.
We marched all night and all today. We arrived only an
hour ago.
4) To express recurrent actions. As this meaning is not inher-
ent in the form as such, it is generally supported by the use of
adverbial modifiers of frequency such as often, never, now and
again, sometimes, for days, etc.
e.g. You often mentioned her in your letters.
But sometimes he found his work difficult.
Martin spent many of his evenings reading case histories of
radiation illness.
5) To express permanent actions which indicate continuous,
uninterrupted processes in the past, giving a general characteris-
tic of the person or thing denoted by the subject.
e.g. She had a large, blunt, knobby nose, and her eyes protruded:
they were light blue, staring and slightly puzzled. She
wore her hair in a knob above the back of her head.
Dan worked in a factory twelve hours a day for nine shillings
a week.
The drive sloped downward to where the house stood.
She lived alone in London, and saw no one except me.
I knew they loved each other, but they always quarrelled.
Note. In English there are special means of expressing a recurrent or perma-
nent action in the past. They are used to + infinitive and would + infinitive. Used
(pronounced [ju:st]) to + infinitive has only one form — that of the past tense
which occurs in present-time- and past-time contexts. It generally serves to expres,
recurrent actions which may be either point actions or actions of some duration.
e.g. "She used to give me chocolate," murmured Imogen.
I used to meet him sometimes when he was working on the Chronicle here.
I liked reading in the garden. I used to take out a deck-chair, sit under one of
the apple-trees and read.
Sometimes used to + infinitive with a durative verb serves to express an ac
tion giving a permanent characteristic of the subject of the sentence in the past. In.
this case it implies contrast between the past and the present — what was typical
of the past is no longer true at present. This meaning is naturally found in,
present-time contexts.
e.g. "I used to be as sentimental as anyone a few years ago," said Ann.
You wouldn't have the same comforts in the country, dear, I know. I used to
live there as a girl.
I don't exactly hear as I used to.
The negative and interrogative forms of used to + infinitive are very seldom
found and there is fluctuation in the way they are built up.
e.g. Lena didn't use to like the clock, did she?
"I'm not mean." "You usedn't to be. But you have been lately, haven't you?"
Cedric, what's come over you? You used not to talk like that.
"And what did they use to give you on Sundays?" he was asking as I came in.
"Who do writers write for now?" "Who did they use to write for? People, of
course."
Used you to climb the old apple-tree in the garden?
It is necessary to point out that occasionally used to + infinitive is found
where normally the Past Perfect would be used.
e.g. He ordered dinner, and sat down in the very corner, at the very table perhaps,
at which he and young Jolyon used to sit twenty-five years ago.
Would + infinitive is more restricted in its application than used to + infini
tive. It is found only in past-time contexts and serves to express only recurrent ac-
tions. On the whole, would + infinitive is typical of literary style.
e.g. She would often wake up screaming in the night.
She seemed able to do nothing for an infinite time without feeling bored.
Sometimes I would go out and sit with her for a little on the grass.
He was usually active and interested, but sometimes he would have fits of
depression.
6) To express an action going on at a given past moment. Gener-
ally this meaning is rendered by the Past Continuous {see "Verbs",
§ 26). But we resort to the Past Indefinite in the following cases:
a) The use of the Past Indefinite becomes obligatory with stat-
live verbs.
e.g. She sipped her coffee and pulled a face. She thought it tasted
horrible.
She was ill at ease, and he felt sorry for her. He wanted all
her troubles for himself at that moment.
b) The Past Indefinite may be used instead of the Past Continu-
ous with certain durative verbs. They are to sit, to stand, to lie, to
hang, to shine, to gleam, to talk, to speak, to wear, to carry, to
walk and some others. In such cases the action as such is only
named, and it is often the circumstances under which it takes
place that are really important.
e.g. Barbara and Basil sat in the garden after lunch. The smoke
from Basil's cigar hung on the humid air.
The lights in the house were out, but a rising moon gleamed
against one window in the room where little Mary slept.
We went to the bus stop. The full moon shone down on the
lightless blind-faced street.
His hair was newly cut, he wore a stiff white collar, a bowler
hat, a thin gold watch-chain and other marks of respect-
ability, and he carried a new umbrella.
He talked with acute intensity.
Her face was heavy, she spoke with deep emotion.
He walked between us, listening attentively to our conversation.
Note. Note that when we speak of inanimate things the Past Indefinite is the
norm with the verbs mentioned above.
e.g. On the table lay three rows of cards face upwards.
Outside, beyond the colonnade, the ground froze hard and the trees stood out
white against the leaden sky.
7) To express a future action viewed from the past. This use is
found in reported speech and is structurally dependent. It occurs in
clauses of time, condition and concession; the Future-in-the-Past or
modal verbs are usually used in the principal clause in this case.
(For conjunctions introducing these clauses see "Verbs'1, § 10, 4.)
e.g. He knew that she was determined to marry him, and would, if
she thought it useful, lie and cheat and steal until she
brought it off.
Probably she knew that, whatever happened, he would not
give her away.
8) To express unreal actions. (For this see "Verbs", §§ 122-
126, 132, 133, 144, 146-149, 153, 162.)
§ 24. For the use of the Past Indefinite in some sentence pat-
terns comprising complex sentences with clauses of time intro-
duced by as and while see "Verbs", § 28.
For the use of the Past Indefinite in some sentence patterns
comprising complex sentences with clauses of time introduced by
when, after, before, till/until, since, etc. see "Verbs", § 32.
The Past Continuous
§ 25. The Past Continuous is an analytical form which is built
up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Past Indefinite and
the ing-form of the notional verb (e.g. I was working. They were
working, etc.). (On the formation of the ing-form see "Verbs",
§ 11.) The same auxiliary is used in the interrogative and negative
forms (e.g. Were you working? Was he working? We were not work-
ing. I was not working, etc.). In spoken English the contracted
forms wasn't and weren't are used in negative sentences.
§ 26. The Past Continuous is used in the following cases:
1) To express an action which was going on at a given moment
in the past. The most typical feature of this use of the Past Con-
tinuous is that the precise time limits of the action are not
known, its beginning and its end are not specified.
As a rule, no indication of a given past moment is necessary
because the meaning is clearly expressed by the Past Continuous
itself. However, sometimes it becomes important to mention the
moment and then it is indicated in the sentence by stating the pre-
cise time or with the help of another action which is usually a
point action expressed in the Past Indefinite.
e.g. Little Mary came in. She was eating an ice-cream cone.
Jolly's face crimsoned, then clouded. Some struggle was evi-
dently taking place in him.
I am afraid I took your wife's fan for my own, when I was
leaving your house tonight.
In a moment I returned to where Martin was still reading by
the fire.
Note. As has been said, the Past Indefinite is preferred to the Past Continuous
with certain durative verbs when attention is focused on the circumstances under
which the action is performed (see "Verbs", § 23, 6 b). However, the Past Continu-
ous is occasionally found, too.
e.g. She was speaking with difficulty, as though she had to think hard about each
word.
Yet when it is intended to make the process of the action (indicated by a dura-
tive verb) the focus of communication, the use of the Past Continuous becomes
necessary. Compare the use of the Past Indefinite and the Past Continuous in the
following passage:
On one occasion I sat with them in the studio. Dirk and I were talking. Mrs
Stroeve sewed, and I thought I recognized the shirt she was mending as Strick-
land's. He lay on his back. He did not speak.
2) To express an action going on at a given period of time in
the past. Inthis case the precise limits of the action are not
known either. The indication of the past period of time is general-
ly understood from the context but it may also be indicated in the
sentence in various ways.
e.g. Andrew had no idea whether he was doing well or badly in his
exam.
In the slight pause young Nicholas was heard saying gently
that Violet was taking lessons in pastel.
He remembered that Helen had met her first husband when
she was working in a New York publishing house.
"What were you doing in Paris?" "I was trying to find a pub-
lisher for my new book."
Wake was in New York when the news reached him. He was
acting in a play that had had a success in London.
Note. The Past Continuous may be used in present-time contexts to refer to a
past action whose duration is marked by such time indications as all day, all that
year, yesterday, the whole morning and the like.
e.g. All through that winter and spring, I was attending committees, preparing
notes for the minister, reading memoranda, talking to my scientific friends.
Roy was keeping to his rooms all day.
All that winter they were experimenting with protective clothing.
However, this use of the Past Continuous is greatly restricted because it can be
applied only to a single action which is never part of a succession of actions. But
even in this case the Past Indefinite is usually found.
e.g. I stayed in all day.
But most commonly such actions are expressed with the help of the sentence
pattern to spend+ time — ing form.
e.g. I spent all the morning reading.
He spent the summer helping his uncle on the farm.
3) To express actions characterizing the person denoted by the
subject, i.e. bringing out the person's typical traits. Often such
adverbial modifiers as always and constantly are found in this case
in the sentence.
e.g. "This is Dan's breakfast," Adeline said, indicating it with a
bandaged thumb. She was always suffering from a cut or a
burn.
You remember how he was always writing verses.
He was always experimenting. He wasn't really a doctor, he
was a bacteriologist.
She was noisy and brash and constantly trying to attract at-
tention by any means.
The Past Continuous in this case imparts a subjective, emotion-
ally coloured tone. When no emotional colouring is implied, the
Past Indefinite is used to give an objective characteristic (see also
"Verbs", § 25).
4) To indicate a future action viewed from the past. It is an
action which was supposed to take place in the near future due to
one's previous decision. The time of the action need not always be
mentioned as it is easily understood from the situation.
e.g. Why didn't you tell me you were starting?
He did not know how he could send word that he was not
coming.
At the end of the week she wired that she was returning.
§ 27. It should be remembered that there are the same restric-
tions to the use of the Past Continuous as to the Present Continu-
ous in so far as the lexical character of verbs is concerned (see
"Verbs", § 2, 2).
Like the Present Continuous, the Past Continuous may some-
times be found with stative verbs. It occurs either because the
verb has changed its meaning or because the action is lent great
intensity.
e.g. I had a horrid feeling that she was seeing right through me
and knowing all about me.
I was seeing George regularly now. He took me as an equal.
The next morning, as I was going out of the college, I met the
Master in the court. "I was wanting to catch you, Eliot,"
he said.
I wasn't well that day, and I wasn't noticing particularly.
He felt he was being the little ray of sunshine about the home
and making a good impression.
Some durative verbs, for example, verbs of bodily sensation (to
feel, to hurt, to ache, to itch, etc.) and such verbs as to wear, to look
(= to seem), to shine and others may be used either in the Past In-
definite or in the Past Continuous with little difference in meaning.
Cf. He was happy now that his wife was feeling better.
I saw that he felt upset.
Ted Newton stopped at my table for a quick drink. He was
wearing a fur coat.
A few minutes later Fred came from the direction of the sta-
bles. He wore riding breeches.
His wife was looking happy.
She looked like a very wise mermaid rising out of the sea.
§ 28. Note the following sentence patterns in which we find
the Past Indefinite and the Past Continuous used in different
combinations with each other:
1) A complex sentence with a clause of time introduced by the
conjunction as. Within that pattern there may be three different
kinds of time relations between the action of the subordinate
clause and that of the principal clause.
a) The actions of the two clauses are fully simultaneous. In this
case the Past Indefinite is commonly found in both clauses.
e.g. I watched him as he drank his tea.
Roy talked little as they drove home.
Occasionally the Past Continuous is found in the principal clause
whereas the Past Indefinite is still used in the clause of time. It usu-
ally happens when the verb in the principal clause is terminative and
the Past Indefinite would indicate a completed action.
e.g. As I poured her out a glass of sherry, she was saying: "I al-
ways imagined you were older."
b) The actions of the principal and the subordinate clauses are
partially simultaneous. In this case the action of the subordinate
clause serves as a background for the action of the principal clause
which is usually a shorter accomplished action. In this case we
normally find the Past Continuous in the subordinate clause and
the Past Indefinite in the principal clause.
e.g. As I was going inside, Mrs Drawbell intercepted me.
One evening, just as I was leaving the office, Martin rang
me up.
c) The actions of the two clauses form a succession. In this
case, naturally, only the Past Indefinite is found.
e.g. As the sun disappeared, a fresh breeze stirred the new cur-
tains at the window.
As I turned back into the room a gust of wind crashed the
door shut behind me.
2) A complex sentence with a clause of time introduced by
the conjunction while. Here we find two different kinds of time
relations between the actions of the two clauses.
a) The actions are fully simultaneous. In this case either the
Past Continuous or the Past Indefinite is used in the subordinate
clause and the Past Indefinite is normally found in the principal
clause:
e.g. Martha said nothing but looked from one face to the other
while they discussed plans.
She sat still as a statue while he was playing the sonata.
b) The actions are partially simultaneous. In this case the ac-
tion of the subordinate clause serves as a background for the action
of the principal clause which is a shorter accomplished action. So
the Past Indefinite is used in the principal clause while in the
subordinate clause either the Past Indefinite or the Past Continu-
ous is found.
e.g. While I was reading, I heard a splash from the bath, and I
realized that Martin must be there.
While he stood there wondering what sort of pictures to hang
on the walls he heard the telephone ring.
The Past Perfect
§ 29. The Past Perfect is an analytical form which is built up
by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the Past Indefinite and
the participle of the notional verb (e.g. I had worked. He had
worked, etc.). (On the formation of the participle see "Verbs", § 5
and Appendix.) The same auxiliary is used to form the interrogative
and the negative forms (e.g. Had you worked? Had he worked? It
had not worked. They had not worked). In spoken English the con-
tracted forms I'd, he'd, she'd, we'd, you'd, they'd are used in af-
firmative sentences and hadn't in negative sentences.
§ 30. The Past Perfect falls within the time sphere of the past
and is mainly found in narration. However, as will be seen, it may
be used in some of its meanings in present-time contexts as well.
The Past Perfect has three distinct uses which will be further re-
ferred to as Past Perfect I, Past Perfect II and Past Perfect III.
1) Past Perfect I serves to express an action accomplished be-
fore a given past moment and viewed back from that past moment.
It may be a single point action, an action of some duration or a re-
current action.
We often find this use of the Past Perfect in narration when a
string of consecutive actions is broken up because it becomes nec-
essary to refer back to a previously accomplished action. It is the
function of the Past Perfect to mark this step back in narration.
e.g. She was no fool. She had read much, in several languages, and
she could talk of the books she had read with good sense.
It was long afterwards that I found out what had happened.
He knew where Haviland lived, but he had never been there.
She mentioned not infrequently the fact that her grandfather
had been an ambassador, but never that he had been a
stable-boy.
She was in a dressing-gown and her hair was dishevelled. She
had evidently just got out of bed.
As is seen from the above example, Past Perfect I is struc-
turally independent and may be used in simple sentences as well as
in various kinds of clauses.
Note. The time of the action expressed by the Past Perfect need not be indi-
cated as the form itself shows that the action is accomplished before a given past
moment. Yet there may be indications of time if necessary.
e.g. Jolyon remembered that he also had talked a good deal about it in his first
year at Cambridge, and given it up in his second.
They were concerned with why the machine had not run the day before.
Sometimes the step back which is made in narration refers to
one single action which is then expressed by the Past Perfect (see
the examples above). Often, however, the step back in narration
involves a whole situation comprising a number of actions. These
actions may form a new succession of actions. In this case the Past
Perfect may be used for all the actions (a) or for the first action
alone. The other actions are then expressed by the Past Indefinite
(b). There seem to be no hard and fast rules here.
e.g. a) Adeline was selecting a book from the shelves. When she
had first come to the place there had been few books
there. To these she had added many volumes of poetry,
old and new, novels, works of philosophy, history, es-
says. It had been necessary to build new shelves to ac-
commodate the books she had collected.
He told her that he had recently recovered from an attack
of typhoid and had come to Switzerland to get back his
strength.
b) It was at Blackstable that I first met Edward. I was fifteen
and had just come back from school for the summer hol-
idays. The morning after I got home I took a towel and
bathing drawers and went down to the beach. Passing
the bank, I called in to say how-do-you-do to the man-
ager, and when I came out I met my uncle. He stopped
and shook hands with me. He was walking with a strang-
er. He introduced me to him.
2) Past Perfect II serves to express an action which began be-
fore a given past moment and continues into it or up to it. This
grammatical meaning is mainly expressed by the Past Perfect Con-
tinuous (see "Verbs", § 34). However, the Past Perfect Non-Contin-
uous is found in the following cases:
a) With stative verbs where its use is compulsory.
e.g. She began to do all the things that she had wanted to do for
years.
He suddenly understood that she had loved him all her life.
b) With some dynamic verbs of durative meaning where the
Past Perfect (Non-Continuous) may be used instead of the Past
Perfect Continuous with little difference in meaning.
e.g. Roy mentioned that he had dined at home since his return.
June had never before been in the upper boxes. From the age
of fifteen she had habitually accompanied her grandfather
to the stalls.
As to terminative verbs, they normally have the meaning of
Past Perfect I and never of Past Perfect II.
Since it is often difficult to draw the line between durative
and terminative verbs, it is recommended that students of English
should use the Past Perfect Continuous with all dynamic verbs to
express an action begun before a given past moment and continued
up to it or into it.
c) In negative sentences, when the action itself is completely
negated, Past Perfect II is preferred to the Past Perfect Con-
tinuous.
e.g. Young Jolyon and Soames had not met since the day of Bosin-
ney's death.
He mentioned that he had not played cards for three years.
Past Perfect II is associated with certain time indications: ei-
ther a whole period of the duration of the action is indicated or
its starting point (for details see "Verbs", § 16, 2).
e.g. I suppose every family has a black sheep. Tom had been a
sore trial to his for twenty years.
He was not aware how long he had sat there.
At ten o'clock he awoke and remembered that he hadn't seen
Lily since Saturday.
He told me he had been badly ill since he returned from
abroad.
Note. Note that in clauses of time introduced by Since the Past Indefinite is
commonly used (see the example above).
3) In adverbial clauses of time introduced by the conjunctions
when, before, after, as soon as and till/until to express a future
action viewed from the past. It shows that the action of the sub-
ordinate clause will be completed before the action of the princi-
pal clause which is usually expressed by the Future-in-the-Past.
This use of the Past Perfect is structurally dependent as it is
restricted only to the above-mentioned type of clauses. Besides, it
is found only in reported speech.
e.g. It was desperately early; he took up his book again, making
up his mind that he would not look at his watch till he
had read thirty pages.
You would have to talk to him before he had made up his
mind.
4) To express unreal actions. (For this see "Verbs", §§ 122-
126, 132-133, 144, 146-149, 153, 162.)
§ 31. As has been said above, the Past Perfect is usually found
in past-time contexts (see the examples above). However, it may
also be used in present-time contexts in its various meanings. Yet
even in this case its use is related not to the moment of speaking
but to a definite past moment expressed or understood from the
context or situation.
e.g. "We only learned about it before dinner," said Muriel. "We
had not expected anything so fantastic."
Roy hesitated. "I don't know whether Mother has told you.
Grace," he said, "but a friend of mine is arriving today.1'
"Yes, I had heard," said Grace.
"Did you know the average housewife walks ten miles a day
about the house? I heard so on the radio today." "I hadn't
thought about it," he said.
§ 32. Note the following sentence patterns in which the Past
Perfect is or may be used:
1) In a simple sentence or in two co-ordinate sentences the Past
Perfect is often used in combination with the Past Continuous
when both actions are viewed from the same past moment. The
definite moment need not be indicated in this case as the pattern
itself shows that the actions are related to the same past moment.
One action is accomplished before that implied moment while the
other one is still in progress. This pattern is very widely used.
e.g. Ann had risen and was peering over his shoulder.
She had got up, and was breathing deeply, with her lips part-
ed and her cheeks very flushed.
All along the walls people were standing and at the far end of
the square boys had climbed into the trees.
As he went down the stairs I walked across to my window and
pulled the curtains. The sky had cleared and the moon was
shining on the snow.
With stative verbs and with some dynamic verbs of durative
meaning the Past Indefinite is used instead of the Past Continuous
in this pattern.
e.g. The rain had passed and the air was fresh and sweet.
She had changed her wet clothes and wore a light cotton dress.
2) In a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time in-
troduced by the conjunction when. The time relations between the
action of the when-clause and that of the principal clause may be
of various kinds: the action of the principal clause may follow the
action of the when -clause, be fully or partially simultaneous with
it and even occasionally precede it. Accordingly, different finite
forms are used in the principal and the subordinate clauses:
a) The most commonly occurring kind of time relation is when
the action of the principal clause closely follows that of the when-
clause — the two actions form a succession of actions. The Past
Indefinite is usually used in both clauses in this case.
e.g. When they reached Grosvenor Square, Angela got out of the
taxi and looked about her, puzzled.
When she returned with the grammar, she drew a chair near
his and sat down beside him.
Yet sometimes, with the same time relation between the two
actions, we find the Past Perfect in the when-clause. It is used in
this case to emphasize the completion of the action in the subordi-
nate clause and the when-clause then is close in meaning to that
of the clause of time introduced by the conjunction after (see fur-
ther below, p. 55).
e.g. When they had shown him round, fed him on their best, and
thrust him into their softest chair, they eagerly demanded
news.
In a moment the butler came in, to clear up. When he had left
again, she said: "Your servant is an honest man, isn't he?"
b) When the two actions are partially simultaneous, the Past
Continuous is usually found in the principal clause and the Past
Indefinite in the when-clause. The former represents the action in
its duration. The latter indicates a shorter action which occurs at
a certain moment of the development of the action in the princi-
pal clause.
e.g. Later that night, I was reading in my sitting-room when the
bell rang.
When he returned to the room she was sitting by the fire.
With stative verbs and some dynamic verbs of durative mean
ing, the same time relation is expressed by the Past Indefinite in
the principal clause.
e.g. He was still in a state of uncertainty when his brother re-
turned with a letter in his hand.
When the car stopped in front of the door he looked dazed.
c) When the two actions are fully simultaneous, the Past In-
definite is generally used in both clauses.
e.g. Ann Chester looked her best when she smiled.
I often felt sincere admiration when I talked to him.
Note. The same time relations as described under (a), (b) and (c) may be found
in this sentence pattern when the Past Perfect has to be used in the principal
clause to mark a step back in narration whereas the Past Indefinite remains un-
changed in the when-clause.
e.g. My friendship with Roy became the deepest of my life. I had met him first
when he was a boy of fifteen.
Ashenden remembered the iron grip he had given him when they shook hands
and slightly shuddered.
d) Occasionally the action of the principal clause may precede
that of the subordinate clause. In this case the Past Perfect is used
in the principal clause and the Past Indefinite in the when-clause.
e.g. He walked at my side under the trees by the edge of the
park. When he next spoke his tone had changed.
When he returned to the living-room, his wife hadn't moved,
and the radio continued to play into the silence.
3) In a complex sentence with a when-clause containing the
Past Indefinite in the subordinate clause and the negative form of
the Past Perfect in the principal clause.
e.g. I hadn't been in the pub two minutes when somebody brought
Tom in for a drink.
I hadn't gone a hundred yards from the corner when I noticed
there was a car behind me.
Note that there is always some indication of measure men-
tioned in the principal clause. Sentences of this kind are generally
rendered in Russian as не прошло и двух минут, как я пришел в
бар, как..., не прошел я и ста ярдов, как... .
4) In a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time in-
troduced by the conjunction as soon as when the action of the
principal clause closely follows that of the subordinate clause. The
two actions form a kind of a succession of actions. Hence, the Past
Indefinite is normally used in both parts of the sentence.
e.g. As soon as I had the chance I asked Mary-Ann what she knew
of the incident.
As soon as she arrived in my flat, she busied herself tidying
it up.
Occasionally the Past Perfect may be found in the subordinate
clause where it is used to emphasize the completion of the action
and then the meaning of the subordinate clause is close to that of
the subordinate clause of time introduced by the conjunction after
(see below).
e.g. As soon as he had gone, I spoke to Hanna.
5) In a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time intro
duced" by the conjunction after (the action of the principal clause
follows that of the after-clause). Generally, the Past Perfect is found
in the after-clause and the Past Indefinite in the principal clause.
e.g. After I had dressed, I went up to Roy's room, and found him
in shirt-sleeves and black waistcoat studying his image in
the mirror.
After he had been through the grammar repeatedly, he took
up the dictionary and added twenty words a day to his vo-
cabulary.
The Past Perfect is used in the after-clause with terminative as
well as durative verbs. With terminative verbs, however, the Past
Perfect may be replaced by the Past Indefinite.
e.g. Shortly after we returned from Basel, Roy moved to London
After we rose from the table, James immediately went to
make a telephone call.
6) In a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time in-
troduced by the conjunctions till or until when the action of the
principal clause is an action of some duration and precedes that of
the subordinate clause. Usually the Past Indefinite is found in
both the principal and the subordinate clause.
e.g. He read the manuscripts until he was dead tired.
I did not see him again till he returned to England for the
summer.
Sometimes, however, the Past Perfect is used in the till/until
clause to show that the action of the principal clause stopped only
after the action of the subordinate clause was accomplished.
e.g. That evening I took out a deck-chair, sat under one of the
apple-trees, and read until the summer sky had darkened
and I could not make out the print.
He waited till she had regained a certain calm.
7) In a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time in-
troduced by the conjunction before, in which there may be two
kinds of time relations between the two actions:
a) The action of the principal clause precedes that of the be fore-clause . Hence, the Past Perfect is found in the principal
clause and the Past Indefinite in the subordinate clause.
e.g. Madge had given Dace a set of keys before they left the farm
on Wednesday morning.
He had heard the news before he ran up my stairs.
Sentences of this kind are rendered in Russian by means of до
Того как ..., прежде чем ..,, перед тем как ... .
Actually, however, the Past Indefinite is by far more common
in the principal clause, especially with terminative verbs.
e.g. He knocked at the door twice before a muffled voice asked:
"Who's there?"
It happened before you came.
b) The action of one of the clauses is not fully accomplished
before the action of the other clause occurs. The unaccomplished
action is expressed by the Past Perfect. Sometimes there are indi-
cations of measure in such sentences.
If the unaccomplished action is expressed in the principal
clause, its predicate verb is always negative in form.
e.g. They had not gone four miles before he understood that it
was going to rain.
He had not been there for two days before he admitted that
he should not have accepted the invitation.
Sentences of this kind are best rendered in Russian as не успе -
ли они ... как , не успев проехать и ... , etc.
If the unaccomplished action is expressed in the subordinate
clause, its predicate verb is affirmative in form but negative in
meaning.
e.g. I realized before you had been here a fortnight that you nev-
er were cut for this life.
I discovered the news before I had been in the house for an
hour.
Sentences of this kind are generally rendered in Russian as не
прошло и двух недель ... как , не пробыл я в доме и часа ... как , etc.
8) In a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time in-
troduced by the correlatives scarcely... when, hardly... when, near
ly... when, and no sooner... than, the time relation between the
two actions is of a specific character — the action of the subordi-
nate clause takes place when the action of the principal clause is
hardly accomplished yet. Hence, the Past Perfect is found in the
principal clause and the Past Indefinite in the subordinate clause.
Such sentences are emphatic in meaning and scarcely, hardly and
no sooner may be placed at the head of the sentence with an in-
verted word order following.
e.g. He had scarcely entered the room when in a chair by the door
he perceived Ann Chester.
She had hardly sat down when a very stout gentleman wear-
ing a very small hat flopped into the chair opposite hers.
No sooner, however, had they established themselves in the
house than he perceived to his dismay a return of her
gloomy mood.
Note. When scarcely, hardly and nearly are used as adverbs and not as correla
tives, they may be associated with different finite forms whose choice is determined
by the situation.
e.g. He did not hate her, he scarcely seemed aware of her presence.
I hardly know what to say.
The Past Perfect Continuous
§ 33. The Past Perfect Continuous is an analytical form which
is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Past Perfect
and the ing-form of the notional verb (e.g. / had been working. He
had been working, etc.). (On the formation of the ing-form see
"Verbs", §11.)
In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed be
fore the subject (e.g. Had you been working? Had she been work
ing?, etc.). In the negative form the negative particle not is placed
after the first auxiliary (e.g. We had not been working. They had
not been working, etc.). In spoken English the contracted forms
I'd, he'd, she'd, we'd, you'd, they'd are used in affirmative and
hadn't in negative sentences.
§ 34. The Past Perfect Continuous has two different uses
which will be further referred to as Past Perfect Continuous I
and Past Perfect Continuous II.
1) Past Perfect Continuous I serves to express an action which
began before a given past moment and continued into it or up to
it. In this meaning it is parallel to Past Perfect II (see "Verbs",
§ 30, 2). Past Perfect Continuous I may be used with the same in-
dications of time as are already described in "Verbs", § 16, 2.
e.g. She suddenly realized that it was now completely dark and
that she had been walking for a long while.
He knew what she had been thinking about since she re-
ceived the telegram.
Grant Melville was charming, and quite a famous painter. He
had been coming to North Cornwall for years, he had a
shack up in the hills.
Ashenden assembled the observations that he had been mak-
ing for the past few days.
The Past Perfect Continuous can be used with dynamic verbs
of both durative and terminative meaning (see the examples
above). Stative verbs express this meaning with the help of Past
Perfect II (see "Verbs", § 30, 2). Past Perfect II is possible with
dynamic verbs of durative meaning but it is not found at all with
terminative verbs.
2) Past Perfect Continuous II serves to express an action
which was in progress just before a given past moment and it affects the past situation in some way. The precise time limits of
he action are not specified. In this meaning the Past Perfect Con-
tinuous is not parallel to Past Perfect II.
Past Perfect Continuous II is, as a rule, not associated with
any indications of time.
e.g. Winifred rose from the chair in which she had been sitting.
Adeline, who had been helping her mother, now joined them.
She and Sylvia talked in high excited tones about an antholo-
gy of poetry they had been reading.
Half-heartedly I asked what she had been thinking about.
Adeline came across the lawn to meet him, carrying roses she
had been cutting.
§ 35. In negative sentences the Past Perfect Continuous is not
common; the Past Perfect (Non-Continuous) is preferred in them
when the negation refers to the action itself but not to its circum
stances (see also "Verbs", § 19).
e.g. I knew they had not corresponded for years.
§ 36. It is noteworthy that Past Perfect Continuous I and par-
ticularly Past Perfect Continuous II may sometimes be found with
stative verbs.
e.g. Beside the porch he stopped to examine the web of a spider
which he had been noticing for a week or more.
Certainly the medicine had steadied her; the sinking feeling
she had been having was all gone.
Over tea she tried to find out whether I had been seeing Sheila.
§ 37. Note some sentence patterns in which the Present Per-
fect Continuous or the Past Perfect Continuous is found:
1) In a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time in-
troduced by since, whose action indicates the starting point of the
action in the principal clause. Hence, the Past Indefinite is used in
the since-clause. As to the principal clause, the Present Perfect
Continuous (or Present Perfect II) is used in it in present-time
contexts (a) and the Past Perfect Continuous (or Past Perfect II) in
past-time contexts (b).
e.g. a) "They are bombs. You could blow the roof of the whole of
this building with what I've got here," said the lunatic
"I've been carting them from room to room since the
war began."
I've known him since we were kids.
b) Michael rose and clutched his hat. Wilfred had said exact
ly what he himself had really been thinking ever since
he came.
Mr Bentley was a publisher because ever since he was a
boy he had had a liking for books.
2) In a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time in
troduced by the conjunctions while and since or by some connec-
tive words and expressions such as as long as, during the week, in
the short time (that), all the time (that), etc. The actions in both
clauses may be parallel, starting at the same time in the past and
continuing either into or up to the moment of speaking in present-
time contexts (a) or into or up to a given past moment in past-time
contexts (b). Accordingly, the Present Perfect Continuous (or
Present Perfect II) is used in both clauses in the former case and
the Past Perfect Continuous (or Past Perfect II) in the latter case.
e.g. a) Our friendship has been growing all the time we've been
working on the project.
I've been rather shut in since we've been here, with all
this bad weather.
b) We had been sitting on our beds while George had been
telling me this true story.
The suit had been neither pressed nor brushed since he
had had it.
3) In a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time in-
troduced by the conjunction when. The action of the subordinate
clause may serve to indicate a given past moment into or up to
which the action of the principal clause, that had begun before
that moment, continued. The duration of the action is indicated by
some adverbial modifier of time. Accordingly, the Past Indefinite
is found in the when-clanse and the Past Perfect Continuous (or
Past Perfect II) in the principal clause. It should be noted that
this is a very commonly occurring pattern.
e.g. He had been sitting by the fire for nearly an hour when his
mother came into the room with a letter in her hands.
They had been walking for less than an hour when the moon
suddenly appeared between the heavy clouds.
The Future Indefinite
§ 38. The Future Indefinite is an analytical form which is
built up by means of the auxiliary verbs shall (for the first per-
son, singular and plural) and will (for the second and third per-
sons, singular and plural) and the infinitive of the notional verb
without the particle to (e.g. / shall see him tomorrow. He will see
'them tomorrow. You will see them tomorrow, etc.).
It should be mentioned that in present-day English there is a ten-
dency to use will for all the persons. Besides, the difference in the
use of shall and will disappears altogether in spoken English where
the contracted form 'l1 is used with all the persons (e.g. I'll see him
tomorrow. She'll see him tomorrow. They'll see him tomorrow, etc.).
The auxiliary verbs shall and will are used to build up the in-
terrogative and the negative forms, too (e.g. Shall we see you to-
morrow? Will they see him tomorrow? I shall not see you tomor
row. You will not see me tomorrow, etc.).
In spoken English the contracted forms shan't and won't are
commonly used in negative sentences.
§ 39. The Future Indefinite is found only in present-time con-
texts. It is by far the most common of all the finite forms refer-
ring an action to the future. Although it is widely used in English,
it is somewhat restricted in its application owing to a number of
reasons which will be dealt with below.
The Future Indefinite may be used to express:
1) a single point action that will be completed in the future,
e.g. It will ruin her.
I know I'm right, and one of these days you'll realize it.
2) an action occupying a whole period of time in the future,
e.g. I think I shall remain in love with you all my life.
I hope you'll live for many years.
3) a succession of actions in the future,
e.g. I shall wait in the next room and come back when she's gone.
We'll just talk about the weather and the crops for a few
minutes and then we'll have dinner.
4) some recurrent actions in the future,
e.g. I shall come along as often as possible.
I hope we shall see something of you while you are in London.
5) some permanent future actions generally characterizing the
person denoted by the subject of the sentence,
e.g. I'm afraid he'll be a bit lonely, poor darling.
The old age pension will keep me in bread, tea and onions,
and what more does an old man want?
The Future Continuous
§ 40. The Future Continuous is an analytical form which is
built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Future Indef-
inite and the ing-form of the notional verb (e.g. / shall be seeing
him often now. He will be seeing them often now, etc.). (On the
formation of the Future Indefinite see "Verbs", § 38; on the forma-
tion of the ing-form see "Verbs", §11.)
In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed be-
fore the subject (e.g. Shall I be seeing him often now? Will he be
seeing them often now?, etc.). In the negative form the negative
particle not is placed after the first auxiliary (e.g. / shall not be
seeing him often now. He will not be seeing them often now, etc.).
In spoken English the contracted form '11 is used with all the
persons in affirmative sentences and shan't and won't in negative
sentences.
§ 41. The Future Continuous is used in the following cases:
1) To express an action in progress at a definite future moment.
The precise time limits of the action are not specified and the fu-
ture moment at which the action takes place is usually indicated
by an adverbial modifier or is clear from the context or situation.
e.g. We'll just be beginning the experiments then, and my con-
tract here ends this summer.
Now I feel absolutely dopy. God knows what I shall be saying
in a minute.
However, in present-day English this original meaning of the
Future Continuous is not so common since it is seldom required
by the situation.
2) To express an action which the speaker expects to take place
in the future in the natural course of events. It may be used with
or without time indications and generally refers to the near future
though it is also possible to use it for a more distant future.
e.g. I feel I shall be asking you the same question tomorrow.
Maurice is tired. He will be coming to bed directly.
"You haven't been out for a week," his mother said. "Five
days," Vincent put down his paper. "You'll be taking root
in that armchair. Your face is growing paler every day."
He yawned. "Another five minutes and I'll be explaining the
law of gravity to another set of my pupils. I'll be making
the same old jokes and they'll be laughing at them in the
same old way."
Bob will not be coming. He's been taken ill.
This use should be regarded as the main application of the Fu-
ture Continuous in modern English.
§ 42. Note the following examples in which the Future Contin-
uous is used with stative verbs.
e.g. "What's your brother like? I shall be knowing him at Ox-
ford," said Val.
Harris said, "We shall be wanting to start in less than twelve
hours' time."
"What sort of house has Laura?" "I didn't notice. I shan't be
seeing her again in any case."
The Future Perfect
§ 43. The Future Perfect is an analytical form which is built
up by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the Future Indefi-
nite and the participle of the notional verb (e.g. I shall have read
the book by that time, He will have read the book by that time,
etc.). (On the formation of the Future Indefinite see "Verbs",
§ 38; on the formation of the participle see "Verbs", § 5.)
In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed be-
fore the subject (e.g. Will she have read the book by that time?
Will you have read the book by that time?, etc.). In the negative
form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary
(e.g. We shall not have read the book by that time. They will not
have read the book by that time, etc.).
In spoken English the contracted form '11 is used with all the
persons in affirmative sentences and shan't and won't in negative
sentences.
§ 44. The Future Perfect is used to express an action accom-
plished before a given future moment which is usually indicated
by an adverbial modifier.
e.g. I daresay you'll have gone to bed by the time I've finished.
I suppose we shall have made up our minds whom we are go-
ing to elect before the meeting.
The Future Perfect is not used very often owing to the fact
that it is seldom required by the situation.
Different Means of Expressing Future Actions Compared
§ 45. All future actions are by nature hypothetical. Owing to
that, ways of expressing future actions — in addition to the mean-
ing of futurity — are often associated with various other modal
meanings, such as intention, willingness, readiness, obligation, as-
surance, expectation and the like. That explains why English is
rich in means of referring an action to the future.
§ 46. The following is a description of different means of ex-
pressing future actions in present-day English:!
1) The Present Continuous is used to express a future action as
definitely settled due to one's previous decision. The action is go-
ing to take place in the near future and the time is, as a rule, indi-
cated in the sentence by means of such adverbial modifiers as to-
night, next week, in a few days, etc.
e.g. She is coming to lunch on Thursday.
You know, I'm going away tonight.
Are you staying long?
Teddie is leaving here by the first train tomorrow.
Patrick, are we doing anything at the weekend?
This use of the Present Continuous is also possible without
any time indications and then the action refers to the immediate
future.
e.g. It's Fred. He's going to Italy and wants to say good-bye.
I'm just going upstairs to change and pack.
I'm sorry you are leaving England.
And now I must go as we are dining out.
Some of these forms can be regarded as purely grammatical ways of expressing
future actions; others are on the border-line between lexical and grammatical means.
Note. Note that in questions beginning with when the Present Continuous a
ways refers the action to the future.
e.g. When is he coming?
When are you going back?
When the Present Continuous is used to refer an action to the
future, the action is regarded as fixed and the speaker is certain
that it will take place.
With stative verbs the Future Indefinite should be applied to
refer an action to the future.
2) The Future Continuous is also one of the means of express
ing future actions. It is described in detail in "Verbs", § 41.
The difference between the Present Continuous used to denote
a future action and the Future Continuous becomes quite evident
if we compare the following sentences:
e.g. We are meeting tomorrow (= we have arranged to meet tomor
row, we have fixed the date of our meeting).
We shall be meeting tomorrow (= not because of some ar
rangement but in the normal course of events; either be
cause we work together, or because we attend classes togeth
er, or regularly play some game at the same place and at
the same time, etc.).
3) To be + infinitive (with to), like the Present Continuous,
serves to indicate a previous arrangement, but in addition to that
meaning it generally implies obligation resulting from that ar-
rangement. Besides, it differs from the Present Continuous in
that it does not necessarily refer the action to the near future.
The verb to be in this combination is regarded as a modal verb.
Since a previous arrangement is the basic meaning of this com-
bination and the action always refers to the future, no special indi
cation of time is needed in the sentence, though the time may be
mentioned if necessary.
e.g. I've had a letter from home. I'm to go back at once.
This autumn he is entering the Military College. He is to
make the Army his career.
The meaning of obligation may become so strong that "to be +
infinitive" sometimes expresses orders or instructions which are
to be carried out in the future.
e.g. Milly, you are not to talk like that in front of the child.
4) To be going to + infinitive is an important means of refer-
ring an action to the future which is frequently used in modern
English. It is convenient to refer to it as the "going-to form".
The "going-to form" may have the following meanings:
a) It serves to express premeditated intention which means
that the person denoted by the subject has been planning for some
time to perform the action, has been thinking of it, that some
preparation for the action has been in progress. Indications of
time are optional in this case.
e.g. I'm not going to live at home.
I'm going to say something dreadful to you, Dorothy.
I'm going to tell him what I think of him.
He's not going to make any concessions.
Are you going to play tennis?
What are you going to do about it?
She's going to explain that tomorrow.
Oh, I'm not going to marry for years yet.
Note. The verb to go is actually not the Present Continuous here. It is the
Present Continuous only in form; its use has become idiomatic in this combination.
Although this means of referring an action to the future is fre-
quently found in English, its application is somewhat restricted —
it is mainly found with dynamic verbs. An important exception to
the rule, however, is the verb to be which often occurs in this
construction.
e.g. He's going to be a solicitor.
Of course, the trip's going- to be wonderful.
The verbs to go and to come are rarely found with the "going-
to form". Thus, He is going to go or He is going to come are un-
common in English. These verbs are generally used in the Present
Continuous instead.
e.g. Oh, are you going to Italy?
| A |
re you coming, Mother?
b) It may also be used to show the speaker's feeling that the
action is imminent, that it is unavoidable in the near future. No
indication of time is generally needed in this case.
e.g. I don't know what is going to happen.
"The next few years," said George, "are going to be a won-
derful time to be alive."
Oh, what is going to become of us?
I'm afraid I'm going to cry.
5) The Present Indefinite is also an important means of ex-
pressing future actions. It is used in four different cases which
have been described in "Verbs", § 10, 4.
6) The Future Indefinite. After all the other means of express-
ing future actions have been described, it is now necessary to see
what remains for the Future Indefinite proper to express.
In the first place it should be pointed out that the Future In-
definite is used differently with dynamic and stative verbs.
With stative verbs the Future Indefinite is used to express
any action referring to the future, without any restrictions.
e.g. His suggestion will interest you enormously.
You'll think his ideas absurd.
She'll know the truth soon.
Don't bother, I shall manage all right by myself.
Dad will never consent to our marriage.
It'll be rather fun coming up to town to eat my dinners.
I'll be back presently.
We shall have some news for you to take to your people.
It will not make much difference to me.
The other means of expressing future actions are not common
with stative verbs — some of them seem to be impossible with
these verbs (e.g. the Present Continuous, the Future Continuous,
partly the Present Indefinite) while others are uncommon (e.g. the
"going-to form").
Although the number of stative verbs is limited, they are in
frequent use, which makes the role of the Future Indefinite very
important in English.
With dynamic verbs the Future Indefinite is used freely only
under certain conditions:
a) In the principal clause of a complex sentence with a clause of
time, condition and concession. 1
1 In the subordinate clauses we find the Present Indefinite or the Present Perfect
(see "Verbs", § 10, 4 and § 16, 3).
e.,g. "We shall catch the train if we start now," she insisted.
You're the prettiest woman I've ever known and I shall say
the same when you're a hundred.
As soon as we have had tea, Fred, we shall go to inspect your
house.
We'll talk about it whenever he comes.
Other means of expressing future actions are uncommon in
this case.
b) In passive constructions.
e.g. He'll be voted down.
My chief will be informed of your request.
She will be paid in cash.
c) To express a succession of actions in the future. No other
means seems to be suitable here.
e.g. I shall prepare you a nice little dinner and then we'll leave
you.
I'll take a walk to the sea and on my way back I'll buy you a
newspaper.
d) When the time of the realization of the action is indefinite
or when its realization is remote.
e.g. We shall meet again one day.
Life will teach her a lesson.
He'll never sell his little cottage.
Such sentences often contain adverbial modifiers of indefinite
time, e.g. always, forever, in future, never, some day and the like.
e) To denote actions whose realization is uncertain, doubtful
or merely supposed, as their fulfilment depends on some implied
condition.
e.g. You mustn't cry. Please, don't, or I shall go to pieces.
Protest as you like, Mr Руке, it won't alter my decision.
In this case we sometimes find such attitudinal adverbs in the
Sentence as perhaps, probably, of course and the like.
e..g. They'll probably get a lot of satisfaction out of our quarrel.
Of course he will send you a letter in a few days.
f) In object clauses after verbs (and their equivalents) express-
ing personal views or opinions, such as to be afraid, to believe, to
be sure, to doubt, to expect, to have no doubt, to hope, to imagine,
to know, to suppose, to suspect, to think, to wonder and the like.
Sometimes these verbs are used in parenthesis.
e.g. He thinks a scandal will ruin his reputation.
I don't know what I shall do without you.
I'm afraid he won't talk to you.
I've no doubt you'll explain it perfectly.
His new novel is (I'm quite sure of it) another masterpiece.
On the whole it should be noted that although other means of
expressing futurity can also be used under the conditions de-
scribed above (a, b, c, d, e, f), they are applied when their mean-
ing is specially required.
§ 47. If dynamic verbs are used in the Future Indefinite under
conditions other than those described above, the sentences become
modally coloured. This occurs owing to the fact that the auxilia-
ries shall and will preserve their modal meanings.
Thus shall preserves its original meaning of obligation, if
somewhat modified, with the 2nd and 3rd persons in sentences ex-
pressing promise, threat or warning.
e.g. I promise you, Arthur, that Harold shan't do anything about it.
He shall have a scandal. He shall have the worst scandal
there has been in London for years.
Shall also preserves its modal meaning when it is used in ask-
ing after the will of the person addressed.
e.g. Shall I bring you some coffee?
Oh, Alfred, what shall we do?
Will (in print will or 'll is often used in affirmative sentences
with the first person, singular and plural, to express such mean-
ings as wish, willingness, readiness, intention, determination to
perform an action.
e.g. Г11 do what I can.
I'll go wherever you take me.
Will in sentences of this kind also shows that the speaker of-
fers to perform an action.
e.g. I'll go and get a drink for you.
I'll wire to have the room ready for them.
I'll come with you, Barbara.
In affirmative sentences will with the 2nd and 3rd persons
may occasionally express a command.
e.g. You will come here tomorrow not later than ten, Mr Lickcheese.
Bernard will pay the taxi.
In negative sentences will expresses refusal to perform an ac-
tion.
e.g. I won't argue with you.
He won't be ordered about.
In general questions, direct and indirect, as well as in disjunc-
tive questions, will also preserves its modal meaning and the in-
terrogative sentence is actually to be understood as a request or
an invitation.
e.g. Will you ask him to ring me back?
You'll wait for us, won't you?
Oh, ask him if he won't come in.
The same is true of complex sentences with an if-clause in
which will is used to express willingness or consent.
e.g. Oh, but we shall be delighted if you'll lunch with us.
Will may express supposition.
e.g. As she entered the room, the telephone rang. "That'll be your
mother," Jenny said to her husband.
For a detailed treatment of the modal verbs shall and will see
"Verbs", §§105, 113-116.
§ 48. By way of exception to the above rules, dynamic verbs
mау occasionally be found in the Future Indefinite to express
mere futurity without any additional modal meanings. This use of
the Future Indefinite may be understood as an expression of neu-
trality or impartiality on the part of the speaker. {Usually one of
the other means of expressing futurity is used in such cases.)
e.g. I shall dine in my own room.
I shall leave you with your father for half an hour.
In this chapter we shall present a brief account of new meth-
ods that we have used.
Be quiet. Somebody will answer the bell.
This use of the Future Indefinite is found in formal announce-
ments of future plans in newspapers and news broadcasts.
e.g. This is the weather forecast for the afternoon. A belt of de-
pression will spread further north, showers will fall in
southern districts.
§49. It stands to reason that sometimes the difference be-
tween the various means of referring an action to the future may
become unimportant, as the distinction is often very subtle. Thus,
there are cases when two different forms may be used inter-
changeably without any noticeable difference in meaning.
Cf. We are going to the pictures tonight.
We are to go to the pictures tonight.
He is taking his exam next week.
He will be taking his exam next week.
I'm meeting Tom at the station.
I'm going to meet Tom at the station.
§ 50. Note the use of the Future Indefinite in the following
stereotyped sentences:
e.g. I'll ask you to excuse me.
You'll excuse me, Gardner.
Well, we'll see.
It'll do you good.
It won't do them harm to cool their heads a bit.
You've got a mind like a steel trap. You'll go far.
No good will come of it.
Means of Expressing Future Actions Viewed
from the Past
§ 51. English has some special forms to express future actions if
they are viewed from some moment in the past. The most common
of these means is the Future-in-the-Past, which, like the Future,
has the following forms: the Future Indefinite-in-the-Past, the Fut ure Continuous-in-the-Past, and the Future Perfect-in-the-Past.
1) The Future Indefinite-in-the-Past is an analytical form
which is built up by means of the auxiliary verbs should (for the
first person, singular and plural) and would (for the second and
third persons, singular and plural) and the infinitive of the notion-
al verb without the particle to (e.g. / said I should do it. I said he
would do it, etc.). In present-day English there is a tendency to use
would for all the persons. Besides, the difference in the use of
should and would disappears altogether in spoken English where
the contracted form 'd is used with all the persons (e.g. / said I'd
to it. I said he'd do it, etc.). In negative sentences the particle not
в placed after the auxiliaries should and would with which it often
forms the contractions shouldn't and wouldn't (e.g. I said I should
not (shouldn't) do it. I said he would not (wouldn't) do it, etc.).
The use of the Future Indefinite-in-the-Past is structurally de-
pendent: mainly found in object clauses after one of the past fi-
mite forms in the principal clause. 1
e.g. At twenty I did not know whether any woman would love me
with her whole heart.
I felt that further conversation with Dave would be unprofit-
able at that moment.
He was sure I should get the job.
The Future Indefinite-in-the-Past expresses the time of the ac-
tion relatively (see "Verbs", § 54), i.e. with regard to a given past
moment the action of the subordinate clause follows that of the
Principal clause.
2) The Future Continuous-in-the-Past is an analytical form
which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Fu-
ture Indefinite-in-the-Past and the ing-form of the notional verb
1 It can be used in all types of clauses in which the rules of the sequence of tenses
are observed.
(e.g. / said I should be seeing him often soon. I said he would be
seeing her often soon, etc.). In negative sentences the particle not
is placed after the first auxiliary (e.g. I said I should not be see-
ing him often now. I said he would not be seeing her often now,
etc.). In spoken English the contracted form 'd is used in affirma-
tive sentences and the forms shouldn't and wouldn't in negative
sentences.
The Future Continuous-in-the-Past generally serves to show
that an action which is future from a definite past moment, is ex-
pected to take place in the natural course of events. Like the Fu-
ture Indefinite-in-the-Past, it is also structurally dependent and
is mainly found in object clauses.
e.g. Towards the end of May he had a letter from Rosalind, in
which she said that she would soon be announcing her en-
gagement to Ralph Udal.
He said he would be seeing her that evening at the Atkinsons.
I felt that in a moment we should be talking soberly like two
old acquaintances.
It should be noted that the application of the Future Con
tinuous-in-the-Past is infrequent.
3) The Future Perfect-in-the-Past (should/would have done)
denotes an action completed before a definite moment which is fu-
ture from the point of view of the past. But the form hardly ever
occurs in English as it is seldom required by the situation.
e.g. I was afraid that he would have started off by the time I got
to the coast.
§ 52. In addition to the Future-in-the-Past there are other means
of expressing future actions from the point of view of the past.
1) The Past Continuous is used to express a future-in-the-past
action which is definitely settled. The action is expected to take
place soon after a definite past moment. The time of its realiza-
tion is often, though not necessarily, indicated in the sentence by
means of adverbial modifiers.
e.g. In the pocket of his dinner-jacket was a letter from Annette.
She was coming back in a fortnight.
The last time I saw him, he said he was going on the stage.
2) To be to + infinitive, which is usually treated as a modal
phrase, serves, like the Past Continuous, to indicate a previous
arrangement, but in addition to that meaning it generally implies
obligation resulting from that arrangement.
e.g. I've still got the letter. I was to post it. But of course later I
forgot.
He was beside himself with excitement because his book was
to be published next month.
"To be to + infinitive" may also serve to express orders or in-
structions (mainly in reported speech).
e.g. I had already impressed upon her that she was not to men-
tion my name to him.
There was a special order that no one was to come to the sta-
tion to see the battalion off.
When it denotes a future action viewed from the past, "to be
to + infinitive" may acquire the meaning of something destined to
happen. (This meaning is not found with "to be to + infinitive"
when it is used with reference to the actual future.)
e.g. And then came the offer of the research which was to occupy
so much of his working life.
At that time I did not know what was to become of me.
3) To be going to + infinitive may have two different meanings:
a) Premeditated intention, which means that the person denot-
ed by the subject had been planning for some time to perform the
action, that some preparation for the action had been in progress.
This use of the "going-to form" is chiefly found in object clauses.
e.g. Finn said he was going to write a letter to his uncle in Ireland.
I told George what I was going to say to the Committee.
It is noteworthy that the Past tense of the "going-to form"
may, however, be structurally independent, when it occurs in in-
dependent sentences. In this case, in addition to premeditated in-
tention, it denotes that the action was not carried out, i.e. the
person indicated by the subject was prevented from carrying out
his intention.
e.g. He was going to meet you himself, only his car was stolen.
It's your birthday, Stan. I was going to keep it a secret until
tonight.
b) The speaker's feeling that the action was unavoidable, that
it was imminent. This use of the "going-to form" is mainly found
in reported speech.
e.g. If only we knew what was going to happen.
You always thought I was going to die, didn't you?
I knew he was going to regret the day he had ever written
that letter.
4) The Past Indefinite may be used in two different cases
which are both structurally dependent:
a) With reference to a future action viewed from the past in
clauses of time, condition and concession (in accordance with the
rules of the sequence of tenses),
e.g. So when Anna was leaving for France I said to her vaguely
that I would look her up when she returned.
Probably she knew that whatever happened he would not
give her away.
I told him if he didn't hurry up he'd get no breakfast.
Note. In clauses other than those of time, condition and concession, the Fu-
ture Indefinite-in-the-Past is used even if these clauses are introduced by the con-
junctions when and if.
e.g. I asked him if he would stay another week with us.
The time would come when they would all be proud of Tony.
b) In object clauses after one of the past tenses of to see (-= to
attend), to take care or to make sure in the principal clause.
e.g. He knew that Rosalind would see that it did not happen.
Mother took care that I held myself well.
§ 53. To sum it up, it should be mentioned that though the use
of the Future Indefinite-in-the-Past, in theory, is similar to that
of the Future Indefinite, its use is actually much wider. The use of
the other means of expressing future actions viewed from the past
is, on the contrary, much more restricted than the use of the
same means with reference to the real future.
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