Methods of the identification of phonemes in a language
The first problem of phonological analysis is to establish the phonemes in a definite language. This can be carried out only by phonological analysis based on phonological rules. There are two methods to do that: the distributional method and the semantic method.
The distributional method is based on the phonological rule that different phonemes can freely occur in one and the same position, while allophones of one and the same phoneme occur in different positions and, therefore, cannot be phonologically opposed to each other. For example, as /р/ and /b/ can freely occur in the same phonetic context (as in "pea" — "bee", "rope" — "robe"), they are consequently different phonemes. But one cannot find [p] aspirated and [p] non—aspirated in the same phonetic position in English. Therefore in English they are allophones of one and the same phoneme.
The s e m a n t i с method, in its turn, is based on the phonological rule that a phoneme can distinguish words when opposed to another phoneme or zero in an identical phonetic position.
The opposition /z/ versus /t/ is called a phonological opposition. The opposition /z/ versus /—/ is called a zero (phonological) opposition. The pairs of words which differ only in one speech sound are called minimal pairs.
The semantic method of identification of the phonemes in a language attaches great significance to meaning. The investigator studies the function of sounds by collecting minimal pairs of words in the language. If two speech sounds distinguish words with different meanings, they form a phonological opposition and are realizations of two different phonemes. If not, they are allophones of one and the same phoneme. Thus, it is clearly evident that in English [s] and [t] are realizations of two different phonemes ("sea"—"tea", "so"—"toe"), while [t] aspirated and [t] non—aspirated are allophones of one and the same phoneme, as they cannot distinguish words. Such analysis is sometimes referred to as "minimal pair test".
The tonal subsystem of utterance prosody and units of its analysis.
Pitch
The pitch component of intonation or speech melody is the variations in the pitch of the voice which take place with voiced sounds. It is present in every word (inherent prominence) and in the whole sentence, because it serves to delimit sentences into sense groups, or intonation groups. The delimitative (con stitutive) function of melody is performed by pitch variations jointly with pausation, because each sentence is divided into intonation groups (on the auditory and acoustic level) or into sense groups (on the semantic level).
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To describe the melody of an utterance it is necessary to determine the relevant pitch levels, pitch ranges, directions and rate of pitch movement in each intonation group.
The pitch I e v e I of the whole utterance (or intonation group) is determined by the pitch of its highest—pitched syllable. It shows the degree of semantic importance the speaker attaches to the utterance (or intonation group) in comparison with any other utterance (or intonation group), and also the speaker's attitude and emotions.
The number of linguistically relevant pitch levels in English has not been definitely established yet: in the works of different phoneticians it varies from three to seven. In unemphatic speech most phoneticians distinguish 3 pitch levels: low, mid and high. These levels are relative and are produced on different registers depending on the individual peculiarities of the voice.
The pitch range of an utterance is the interval between its highest-pitched syllable and its lowest—pitched syllable. According to circumstances the speaker changes his voice range. It may be widened and narrowed to express emphasis or the speaker's attitudes and emotions. For example, if "Very good" is pronounced with a narrow (high) range it sounds less enthusiastic. Pronounced with a tow narrow range it sounds sincere, but not emotional. If said with a wide range it sounds both sincere and enthusiastic.
Most phoneticians distinguish three pitch ranges - wide, mid and narrow.
The rate of pitch variations may be different depending on the time, during which these variations take place, and on the range of the variations. Differences in the rate of pitch variations are semantically important. When the rate of the fall is fast, the falling tone sounds more categoric and definite than when the rate of the fall is slow.
The basic unit used to describe the pitch component is the ton e. Depending on whether the pitch of the voice varies or remains unvaried tones are subdivided into kinetic and static. Static tones may have different pitch level of the voice — the high static tone, the mid static tone, the low static tone. The differentiation of kinetic tones as high falling and low falling, high rising and low rising, etc. is also based on the differentiation of the pitch level of their initial and final points.
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As to the direction of pitch movement, kinetic tones are subdivided into simple and complex. Simple tones are unidirectional: the falling and the rising tones. Complex tones are bidirectional: the falling—rising tone, the rising-falling tone, and the rising-falling-rising tone.
22. The structure of a prosodic contour (intonation group) in English. The functions of its elements. SUPRAPHRASAL UNITIES
The view of a text as 'built up' by utterances - the minimal self-contained units of communication - has been enriched in modern linguistics by introducing a “hierarchy” of text constituents which embraces a variety of 'intermediate' units lying between an unexpanded simple utterance and the text.
The higher units are formed by grouping utterances into complexes, or sets, each occupying a certain 'slot' in the semantic structure of the text, reflecting thereby the subdivision of the overall topic into a number of subtopics. The unit coming next to an utterance in the above-mentioned hierarchy is a supraphrasal unity (SPU)
The individual phrases within a SPU have specific language markers of a closer semantic relationship between them than between the initial phrase of a SPU and the preceding utterance, on the one hand, and the final phrase of a SPU and the following utterance in the text, on the other. Because of this 'marked' semantic closeness superphrasal unity is restricted in its length, which does not typically exceed 4 or 5 component phrases.
The identification of a supraphrasal unity in spoken language is achieved primarily with the help of prosodic features. This makes it possible to speak of the proso dic structure of a supraphrasal unity.
First of all, there are constant prosodic markers distinguishing initial, median а final phrases in the unity. These are the features of pitch, loudness and tempo. It has been proved, in particular, that the pitch of the onset syllable in an initial phrase is noticeably higher than that in the following phrases, the decrease of the pitch-height being gradual in many cases. The same tendency is observed for the degree of loudness. The tempo of speech tends to be somewhat slower at the beginning and end of the supraphrasal unity and faster in the middle.
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An important feature marking the boundary of a supraphrasal unity is a pause which is considerably longer than any of the pauses separating the phrases within the unity. It is the so-called three-unit pause, e.g.:
College gets nicer and nicer, | I like the girls {and the teachers {and the classes | and the campus {and the things to eat. || We have ice-cream twice a week | and we never have corn-meal mush.
The degree of semantic completeness of the utterances within a supraphrasal unity is reflected in the degree of finality of its nuclear tone. The last utterance in a unity normally has a falling nuclear tone with the lowest ending point (Mid Wide Low Narrow Fall) while the fall in the non-final phrases doesn't generally reach the bottom of the voice-range (a falling tone with a not-low ending, e.g. the High narrow Fall, the Mid Narrow Fall). There is a rather higher probability for non-falling tones (Low Rise, Fall-Rise) in the initial and medial phrases than in the final phrase of a unity. Due to the specific prosodic markers an utterance isolated from a supraphrasal unity is easily recognized as 'contextual'. Besides the features referred to above, this repression depends on the accentual pattern, which is very often 'marked', i.e. characterized by a shift of prominence from its normal position. The placement of the nucleus in such a phrase can only be justified by a larger context.
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