General Characteristics of Participles

The participle is a non-finite form of the verb which has a verbal and an adjectival or an adverbial character.[11]

There are two participles in English — Participle I and Participle II, traditionally called the Present Participle and the Past Participle.

These traditional terms are open to objection on the ground that Participle I does not necessarily refer to the present, just as Participle II need not refer to the past. The difference between them is not a difference in tense, but chiefly a difference in voice.

Participle I is formed by adding the suffix -ing[12] to the stem of the verb; the following spelling rules should be observed:

(a) If a verb ends in a mute e, the mute e is dropped before adding the suffix -ing: to give — giving, to close — closing.

(b) If a verb ends in a consonant preceded by a vowel rendering a short stressed sound, the final consonant is doubled before adding the suffix -ing: to run — running, to forget — forgetting, to admit— admitting.

A final l is doubled if it is preceded by a vowel letter rendering a short vowel sound, stressed or unstressed: to expel—expelling, to travel — travelling.

A final у is not changed before adding the suffix -ing: to comply — complying, to deny — denying.

The formation of Participle II.

According to the way in which the Past Indefinite and Participle II are formed, verbs are divided into three groups: regular verbs, irregular verbs, and mixed verbs.

1. Regular verbs. They form the Past Indefinite and Participle II by adding -ed to the stem of the verb, or only -d if the stem of the verb ends in -e.[13]

to want —wanted

The pronunciation of -ed (-d) depends on the sound preceding it. It is pronounced:

[ıd] after t, d:

wanted [wɔntıd], landed [lændıd]

[d] after voiced consonants except d and after vowels:

opened ['əupənd], played [pleıd];

[t] after voiceless consonants except t:

worked [wə:kt].

The following spelling rules should be observed:

(a) Final у is changed into i before the addition of -ed if it is preceded by a consonant.

to carry — carried

у remains unchanged if it is preceded by a vowel.

to enjoy — enjoyed

(b) If a verb ends in a consonant preceded by a short stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled.

to stop —stopped

Final r is doubled if it is preceded by a stressed vowel.

to occur —- occurred

Final r is not doubled when preceded by a diphthong,

to appear — appeared

Final l is doubled if it is preceded by a short vowel, stressed or unstressed:

to compel — compelled

2. Irregular verbs. Here belong the following groups of verbs:

(a) verbs which change their root vowel.

to sing —sang — sung

(b) verbs which change their root vowel and add -en for Participle II.

to speak —spoke —spoken

to sell —sold —sold

(d) verbs which change their final -d into -t.

to send —sent —sent

(e) verbs which have the same form for the Infinitive, Past Indefinite and Participle II.

to put — put — put

(f) verbs whose forms come from different stems.

to be — was, were — been

to go — went — gone

(g) special irregular verbs.

to have — had — had

to make — made — made

to do —did —done

(h) defective (anomalous) verbs.

can — could

must

ought

may — might

will — would

shall — should

3. Mixed verbs, their Past Indefinite is of the regular type, and their Participle It is of the irregular type:

to show — showed — shown

As has already been stated, the participle has a verbal and an adjectival or adverbial character. Its adjectival or adverbial character is manifested in its syntactic functions, those of attribute or adverbial modifier. (Some participles have lost their verbality altogether and have become adjectives: interesting, charming, alarming, etc., complicated, distinguished, furnished, etc.

E.g. an interesting book, a charming girl, the alarming news; a complicated problem, a distinguished writer, a furnished apartment.)

I hated the hollow sound of the rain pattering on the roof. (Du Marnier) (attribute)

Мне был отвратителен глухой шум дождя, стучавшего по крыше.

And then she turned to the title-page, and looked at the name written in the schoolboy hand. (Ch. Bronte) (attribute)

Затем она открыла книгу па титульном листе и посмотрела на имя, написанное ученическим почерком.

The verbal characteristics of the participle are as follows:

1. Participle I of a transitive verb can take a direct object.

Opening the door, he went out on to the terrace. (Galsworthy)

2. Participle I and Participle II can be modified by an adverb.

Leaving the room hurriedly, he ran out. (Thackeray)

Deeply affected, Priam Farll rose and left the room. (Bennett)

3. Participle I has tense distinctions; Participle I of transitive verbs has also voice distinctions. In Modern English Participle I has the following forms:

	Active	Passive
Indefinite	writing	being written
Perfect	having written	having been written

The tense distinctions of the participle.

Like the tense distinctions of all the verbals, those of the participle are not absolute but relative.

Participle I Indefinite Active and Passive usually denotes an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb; depending on the tense-form of the finite verb it may refer to the present, past, or future.

When reading The Pickwick Papers, one can't help laughing.

When reading The Pickwick Papers, I couldn't help laughing.

When reading The Pickwick Papers, you will roar with laughter.

He looked at the carpet while waiting for her answer. (Galsworthy)

Он смотрел на ковер, ожидая ее ответа.

Me returned to the hut, bringing in his arms a new-born lamb. (Hardy)

Он вернулся в хижину, неся на руках новорожденного ягненка.

Being left alone, Pauline and I kept silence for some time. (Ch. Bronte)

Оставшись одни, мы с Полиной некоторое время молчали.

Sometimes Participle I Indefinite denotes an action referring to no particular time.

The last turning had brought them into the high-road leading to Bath. (Hardy)

После последнего поворота они вышли на дорогу, ведущую (которая вела) в Бат.

Participle I Perfect Active and Passive denotes an action prior to the action expressed by the finite verb.

Mr. Bumble, having spread a handkerchief over his knees..., began to eat and drink. (Dickens)

Мистер Бамбл, разостлав платок на коленях..., стал есть и пить.

They were, indeed, old friends, having been at school together. (Walpole)

Они и в самом деле были старыми друзьями, так как вместе учились в школе.

It should be noted that a prior action is not always expressed by Participle I Perfect: with some verbs of sense perception and motion, such as to see, to hear, to come, to arrive, to seize, to look, to turn and some others, Participle I Indefinite is used even when priority is meant.

Turning down an obscure street and entering an obscurer lane, lie went up to a smith's shop. (Hardy)

Свернув на темную улицу и войдя в еще более темный переулок, он подошел к кузнице.

Hearing a footstep below he rose and went to the top of the stairs. (Hardy)

Услышав шаги внизу, он встал и вышел на лестницу.

Participle II has no tense distinctions; it has only one form which can express both an action simultaneous with, and prior to the action expressed by the finite verb; the latter case is more frequent.

His sister's eyes fixed on him with a certain astonishment, obliged him at last to look at Fleur. (Galsworthy)

Взгляд сестры, устремленный на него с некоторым недоумением, заставил его, наконец, взглянуть на Флер.

I was reminded of a portrait seen in a gallery. (Du Maurier)

Мне вспомнился портрет, который я видела в картинной галерее.

In some cases Participle II denotes an action referring to no particular time.

He is a man loved and admired by everybody.

The voice distinctions of the participle.

Participle I of transitive verbs has special forms to denote the active and the passive voice.

When writing letters lie does not like to be disturbed.

Being written in pencil the letter was difficult to make out.

Having written some letters he went to post them.

Having been written long ago the manuscript was illegible.

Participle II of transitive verbs has a passive meaning, e. g. a broken glass, a caged bird. Participle II of intransitive verbs has no passive meaning; it is used only in compound tense-forms and has no independent [unction in the sentence unless it belongs to a verb which denotes passing into a new state, e. g. a withered flower, a faded leaf.

The Gerund

The gerund developed from the verbal noun, which in course of time became verbalized preserving at the same time its nominal character. The gerund is formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb, and coincides in form with Participle I.[14]

As a natural result of its origin and development the gerund has nominal and verbal properties. The nominal characteristics of the gerund are as follows:

1. The gerund can perform the function of subject, object and predicative.

They say smoking leads to meditation. (Collins) (SUBJECT)

I like making people happy. (Shaw) (OBJECT)

The duty of all progressive mankind is fighting for peace. (PREDICATIVE)

2. The gerund can be preceded by a preposition.

I am very, very tired of rowing. (Hemingway)

3. Like a noun the gerund can be modified by a noun in the possessive case or by a possessive pronoun.

"I wonder at Jolyon's allowing this engagement," he said to Aunt Ann. (Galsworthy)

«Меня удивляет, что Джолион допустил эту помолвку», — сказал он тетушке Энн.

Is there any objection to my seeing her? (Galsworthy)

Кто-нибудь возражает против того, чтобы я повидался с ней?

The verbal characteristics of the gerund are the same as those of the participle:

1. The gerund of transitive verbs can take a direct object.

1 had now made a good progress in understanding and speaking their language. (Swift)

2. The gerund can be modified by an adverb.

She burst out crying bitterly. (Hardy)

3. The gerund has tense- distinctions; the gerund of transitive verbs has also voice distinctions. The forms of the gerund in Modern English are as follows:

	Active	Passive
Indefinite	writing	being written
Perfect	having written	having been written

There is no gerund in the Russian language and the English gerund is rendered in Russian in different ways:[15]

(a) by a noun.

Dancing had not begun yet... (Mansfield)

Танцы еще не начались.

(b) by an infinitive.

She had tea with Cipriano before leaving. (Lawrence)

Перед тем как уйти, она выпила чаю с Чиприано.

It is no good hiding our heads under our wings. (Galsworthy)

Бесполезно прятать голову под крыло.

And without waiting for her answer he turned and left us. (Du Maurier)

И, не дожидаясь ее ответа, он повернулся и вышел.

On seeing Bella he stopped, beckoned her to him, and drew her arm through his. (Dickens)

Увидев Беллу, он остановился, подозвал ее к себе и взял под руку.

(d) by a subordinate clause.

He regretted now having come. (Galsworthy)

Теперь он сожалел, что пришел.

It should be observed that though the active forms of the gerund may be rendered in different ways, the passive forms are nearly always rendered by a clause.

As she contemplated the wide windows and imposing signs, she became conscious of being gazed upon. (Dreiser)

Когда она рассматривала широкие витрины и внушительные вывески, она почувствовала, что на нее смотрят.

After having been informed of the conference in my lady's room he immediately decided on waiting to hear the news from Frizinghall. (Collins)

После того как ему сообщили о совещании в комнате миледи, он сразу решил подождать, чтобы узнать новости из Фризингхолла.

The tense distinctions of the gerund.

The tense distinctions of the gerund; like those of the participle, are not absolute but relative.

1. The Indefinite Gerund Active and Passive denotes an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb; depending on the tense form of the finite verb it may refer to the present, past, or future.

He can swim for any number of hours without tiring. (Hichens)

Он может плыть много часов подряд, не уставая.

She walked on without turning her head. (Hardy)

Она шла, не поворачивая головы.

2. The Perfect Gerund denotes an action prior to that of the finite verb.

She denies having spoken with him.

Она отрицает, что говорила с ним.

He was ashamed of having shown even the slightest irritation. (Bennett)

Ему было стыдно, что он проявил раздражение, хотя и очень слабое.

However, a prior action is not always expressed by a Perfect Gerund; in some cases we find an Indefinite Gerund. This occurs after the verbs to remember, to excuse, to forgive, to thank and after the prepositions on (upon), after, and, without.

I don't remember hearing the legend before. (Hardy)

Я не помню, чтобы я когда-нибудь слышала эту легенду.

You must excuse my not answering you before. (Collins)

Вы должны извинить меня за то, что я не ответил вам раньше.

I thank you for restraining me just now. (Ch. Bronte)

Я благодарен вам за то, что вы сейчас помогли мне сдержаться.

On leaving the house we directed our steps to the nearest shade. . (Collins)

Выйдя из дома, мы направились в тень.

The Perfect Gerund may also be used after the above mentioned verbs and prepositions.

He did not remember having been in that room. (Galsworthy)

Он не помнил, чтобы когда-нибудь был в этой комнате.

The voice distinctions of the gerund.

The gerund of transitive verbs has special forms for the active and the passive voice.

He liked neither reading aloud nor being read aloud to. (Maugham)

Он не любил ни читать вслух, ни слушать чтение.

It is to be observed that after the verbs to want, to need, to deserve, to require and the adjective worth the gerund is used in the active form, though it is passive in meaning.

"The slums want attending to, no doubt," he said. (Galsworthy)

«Без сомнения, трущобами надо заняться», — сказал он.

He realized that his room needed painting.

Он понял, что его комнату надо покрасить.

Differences Between Gerund and the Participle/Verbal Noun

The gerund and the participle.

In most cases the differentiation between the gerund and the participle does not present any difficulty.

Unlike the participle the gerund may be preceded by a preposition, it may be modified by a noun in the possessive case or by a possessive pronoun; it can be used in the function of a subject, object, and predicative. In the function of an attribute and of an adverbial modifier both the gerund and the participle may be used, but the gerund in these functions is always preceded by a preposition.

There are cases, however, when the differentiation between the gerund and the participle presents some difficulty; for instance, it is not always easy to distinguish between a gerund as part of a compound noun and a participle used as an attribute to a noun. One should bear in mind that if we have a gerund as part of a compound noun, the person or thing denoted by the noun does not perform the action expressed by the ing-form: e.g. a dancing-hall (a hall for dancing), a cooking-stove (a stove for cooking), walking shoes, a writing-table, etc.[16]

If we have a participle used as an attribute the person denoted by the noun performs the action expressed by the mg-form: e.g. a dancing girl (a girl who dances), a singing child, etc.

However, there are cases which admit of two interpretations; for example a sewing machine may be understood in two ways: a machine for sewing and a machine which sews; a hunting dog may be a dog for hunting and a dog that hunts.

The gerund and verbal noun.

The gerund should not be confused with the verbal noun, which has the same suffix -ing. The main points of difference between the gerund and the verbal noun are as follows:

1.	Like all the verbals the gerund has a double character— nominal and verbal.	The verbal noun has only a nominal character.
2.	The gerund is not used with an article.	The verbal noun may be used with an article. The making of a new humanity cannot be the privilege of a handful of bureaucrats. (Fox) I want you to give my hair a good brushing. (Hardy)
3.	The gerund has no plural form.	The verbal noun may be used in the plural. Our likings are regulated by our circumstances. (Ch. Bronte)
4.	The gerund of a transitive verb takes a direct object. He received more and more letters, so many that he had given up reading them. (Priestley)	A verbal noun cannot take a direct object; it takes a prepositional object with the preposition of. Meanwhile Gwendolen was rallying her nerves to the reading of the paper. (Eliot)
5.	The gerund may be modified by an adverb. Drinking, even temperately, was a sin. (Dreiser)	The verbal noun may be modified by an adjective. He (Tom) took a good scolding about clodding Sid. (Twain )

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