Historical development of American law
UNIT 5 Text 1 The Common law and civil law traditions
The Common law (общее право) and civil law (гражданское право ) traditions
Most nations today follow one of two major legal traditions: common law or civil law. The common law tradition emerged in England during the Middle Ages (средневековье/средние века ) and was applied (применялось) within British colonies across continents. The tradition developed in continental Europe at the same time and was applied in the colonies of European imperial powers (имперская держава, империя)such as Spain and Portugal. Civil law was also adopted in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries by countries formerly possessing distinctive legal traditions, such as Russia and Japan, that sought to reform their legal systems in order to gain economic and political power comparable to that of Western European nation-states.
Historical development of English Common Law
Originally issued in the year 1215, the Magna Carta was first confirmed into law (confirm 1) подтверждать 2) утверждать; санкционировать; ратифицировать • to confirm by a notary — засвидетельствовать у нотариуса; to confirm decision [judgement] — утвердить вынесенное по делу решение ) in 1225. This 1297 exemplar ([ɪg'zemplə, eg-] 1) а) образец, пример для подражания The Republic is the pattern of all other states and the exemplar of human life. — Республика это образец для всех других государств и пример того, какой должна быть жизнь человека. Syn: prototype , example б) модель, идеальный вариант (чего-л.) Syn: model 2) вариант, разновидность Syn: model , pattern), some clauses of which are still statutes (закон, законодательный акт парламента; статут) in England today, was issued by Edward I.
English common law emerged from the changing and centralizing powers of the king during the Middle Ages. After the Norman Conquest in 1066, medieval kings began to consolidate power and establish new institutions of royal authority and justice. New forms of legal action established by the crown functioned through a system of writs ( предписание, повестка; исковое заявление, судебный приказ,) or royal orders, each of which provided a specific remedy for a specific wrong. The system of writs became so highly formalized that the laws the courts could apply based on this system often were too rigid (1) ригидный; неподатливый; жесткий 2) устойчивый, неподвижный 3) строгий ) to adequately achieve justice. In these cases, a further appeal to justice would have to be made directly to the king. This difficulty gave birth to a new kind of court, the court of equity
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( суд права справедливости, суд системы права справедливости (суд, разбирающий жалобы на основе права справедливости, в отличие от суда, действующего на основе общего права; исторически деление связано с существовавшими параллельно двумя формами разбирательств (на основе закона и на основе справедливости); разделение сохраняется и в настоящее время, напр., такие вопросы, как изменение условий контрактов, использование судебных запретов, разводы, споры по доверительному управлению и др., считаются относящимися к праву справедливости, а не традиционному общему праву),
also known as the court of Chancery
(суд лорда-канцлера (1) канцлерский суд (в Великобритании до 1873 г.) 2) NAmE суд системы "права справедливости" )
В Верховный суд Англии и Уэльса - Supreme Court of England and Wales - входят :
1) Высокий суд, Высокий суд справедливости (High Court of Justice ) (первая инстанция Верховного суда в Англии) ,
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2) Апелляционным судом (Court of Appeal) и 3) Судом короны (Crown Court )
High Court of Justice , Высокий суд, Высокий суд справедливости
имеет три отделения — королевской скамьи (Queen ' s Bench Division), канцлерское (Chancery Division ) и семейное (Family Division)
Chancery Division - Канцелярское отделение (отделение Высокого суда Великобритании; слушает в качестве суда первой инстанции (- court of first appearance, court of original jurisdiction, court of primary jurisdiction, trial court, trial jurisdiction, trial tribunal ) гражданские дела, связанные с управлением имуществом, доверительной собственностью и т. п.; на правах одной из составных частей Канцелярского отделения функционирует Патентный суд Patent Court)
Syn: chancery 1) See: High Court of Justice , Patent Court , trust , bankruptcy)
Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876 , закон "Об апелляционой юрисдикции", 1876 г. (закон, на основании которого определены полномочия пересматривать решения нижестоящих судов Высоким судом, Апелляционным судом и палатой лордов) See: judicial system , appellate jurisdiction , High Court of Justice , Court of Appeal , Appeal Committee , statutes relating to the judicial system)
because it was the court of the king’s chancellor.
Courts of equity were authorized to apply principles of equity based on many sources (such as Roman law and natural law) rather than to apply only the common law, to achieve a just outcome.
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Courts of law and courts of equity thus functioned separately until the writs ( судебный приказ; королевский приказ ) system was abolished in the mid-nineteenth century. Even today, however, some U.S. states maintain separate courts of equity. Likewise, certain kinds of writs, such as warrants (ордер (на арест, обыск и т. п.) ; предписание; приказ) and subpoenas,([səb'piːnə] 1. ; вызов в суд, повестка о явке в суд (под страхом наказания или штрафа в случае неявки) still exist in the modern practice of common law. An example is the writ of habeas corpus ( [ˌheɪbɪəs'kɔːpəs] = writ of habeas corpus предписание о представлении арестованного в суд (для рассмотрения законности ареста), which protects the individual from unlawful detention ([dɪ'ten(t)ʃ(ə)n] / 1) задержание , арест ; содержание под арестом in detention — в заключении ). Originally an order from the king obtained by a prisoner or on his behalf, a writ of habeas corpus summoned (вызывать в суд) the prisoner to court to determine whether he was being detained under lawful authority. Habeas corpus developed during the same period that produced the 1215 Magna Carta (Великая хартия вольностей (1215 г.), or Great Charter, which declared certain individual liberties, one of the most famous being that a freeman could not be imprisoned or punished without the judgment of his peers under the law of the land—thus establishing the right to a jury trial (суд присяжных).
In the Middle Ages, common law in England coexisted, as civil law did in other countries, with other systems of law. Church courts applied canon law (каноническое, церковное право), urban and rural courts applied local customary law (обычное право (совокупность традиционно сложившихся обычаев, правил, за которыми специально закреплено значение правовых норм), Chancery and maritime courts (морской суд (суд, рассматривающий споры, связанные с нарушением соглашений о морских перевозках, столкновением кораблей и возмещением убытков, связанных с этими и иными подобными событиями) applied Roman law (Roman (Civil )law римское право Roman law римское право (система права Древнего Рима, которая составила основу права многих современных государств, прежде всего западной Европы и латинской Америки). Only in the seventeenth century did common law triumph over the other laws, when Parliament established a permanent check on the power of the English king and claimed the right to define the common law and declare other laws subsidiary ([səb'sɪdɪ(ə)rɪ] / 1. 1) второстепенный; вспомогательный) to it. This evolution of a national legal culture in England was contemporaneous ([kənˌtemp(ə)'reɪnɪəs] / 1) современный (относящийся к одному времени, к одной эпохе с кем-л. / чем-л.) ; происходящий в одно время, одновременный) with the development of national legal systems in civil law countries during the early modern period. But where legal humanists and Enlightenment scholars (эпоха Просвещения (идейное течение, представляющее собой борьбу за установление "царства разума", основанного на "естественном равенстве", за политическую свободу и гражданское равенство; большое значение для достижения нового общественного порядка придавало распространению знаний; подготовило почву для ряда буржуазных революций и особенно Великой французской революции; в ряде стран Западной Европы распространилось в 18 в., в Англии — со 2-й половины 17 в.; крупнейшие представители: Дж. Локк в Англии, Вольтер, Ж.-Ж. Руссо, Ш. Монтескье, П. А. Гольбах, К. А. Гельвеций, Д. Дидро во Франции; Г. Э. Лессинг, И. Г. Гердер, Ф. Шиллер, И. В. Гете в Германии; Т. Джефферсон, Б. Франклин, Т. Пейн в США) on the continent looked to shared (общий, совместный, совместного пользования) civil law tradition as well as national legislation and custom, ( ['kʌstəm] / 1. 1) а) обычай, традиция) English jurists of this era took great pride in the uniqueness of English legal customs and institutions.
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That pride, perhaps mixed with envy inspired by the contemporary European movement toward codification (составление сводов законов), resulted in the first systematic, analytic treatise (['triːtɪz] / 1) трактат 2) научный труд; курс (учебник)) on English common law: William Blackstone’s (1723-1780) Commentaries on the Laws of England. In American law, Blackstone’s work now functions as the definitive source for common law precedents prior to (['praɪəˌtə] до, до момента, перед) the existence of the United States.
Historical development of American law
The American legal system remains firmly within the common law tradition brought to the North American colonies from England. Yet traces of the civil law tradition and its importance in the hemisphere maybe found within state legal traditions across the United States. Most prominent is the example of Louisiana, where state law is based on civil law as a result of Louisiana’s history as a French and Spanish territory prior to its purchase from France in 1803. Many of the southwestern states reflect traces of civil law influence in their state constitutions and codes from their early legal heritage as territories of colonial Spain and Mexico. California, for instance, has a state civil code organized into sections that echo traditional Roman civil law categories pertaining to persons, things, and actions; yet the law contained within California’s code is mostly common law.
And while Blackstone prevails as the principal source for pre-American precedent in the law, it is interesting to note that there is still room for the influence of Roman civil law in American legal tradition. The founding fathers and their contemporaries educated in the law knew not only the work of English jurists such as Blackstone, but also the work of the great civil law jurists and theorists.
Thomas Jefferson, for example, owned several editions of Justinian’s Institutes, and praised the first American translated edition from 1812, with its notes and annotations on the parallels with English law, for its usefulness to American lawyers.
Indeed, a famous example of its use is the 1805 case of Pierson v. Post, in which a New York judge, deciding on a case that involved a property dispute between two hunters over a fox, cited a Roman law principle on the nature and possession of wild animals from the Institutes as the precedent for his decision.
Today Pierson v. Post is often one of the first property law cases taught to American law students. United States v. Robbins, a 1925 California case that went to the Supreme Court and paved the way for the state’s modern community property laws, was based upon a concept of community property (community property 1) общее имущество супругов 2) общинная собственность коллективная собственность ) that California inherited not from English common law but from legal customs of Visigothic Spain (Visigoth ['vɪzɪgɔθ] 1) вестгот (представитель германского племени, относившегося к западной ветви готов) ) that dated to the fifth century CE. ( Common Era; C.E. новой эры, нашей эры, н.э.; от Рождества Христова, Р.Х.)
Cases such as these illuminate ([ɪ'l(j)uːmɪneɪt] разъяснять, проливать свет (на что-л.) ) the rich history that unites and divides the civil and common law traditions and are a fascinating reminder of the ancient origins of modern law.
https://www.law.berkeley.edu/library/robbins/CommonLawCivilLawTraditions.html
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