Roman Britain feed-back tasks. Note: the questions are meant to provide kind of a rough plan for your examination answer; you are welcome to rearrange them in a more suitable way.
Roman Britain
Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between 43 and 410. The Romans referred to their province as Britannia. Before their invasion, Iron Age Britain already had cultural and economic links with Continental Europe, but the invaders introduced new developments in agriculture, urbanisation, industry and architecture, leaving a legacy that is still apparent today. The Romans knew the British Isles as the "Tin Islands", from Punic traders and merchants who engaged in commerce with the Celtic tribes of this land from their bases in Carthaginian Hispania. The Roman general and future dictator Gaius Julius Caesar, endowed with a proconsular imperium for all of Gaul in the first century BCE, briefly invaded Britain in the course of his campaigns in Belgic. He marked that the population was exceeedingly large, the ground studded with homesteads. It shows how much food there was on the island that 2 legionscould live for a fortnight off the cornfields close to their camp. He subjected many of the native tribes to tribute payments and hostage exchanges, most of which were ignored after his departure. The British tribes remained independent of Rome until Claudius' permanent conquest and occupation a century later, when in 43 A.D. Claudius fancied a military reputation and summoned an army of about 20.000.
Roman soldiers landed at Richborough, defeated the southeastern British tribes, and captured their capital Camulodunum or Colchester. For the first twenty years, the Roman rule was oppressive, and this treatment led Boudicca, Queen of the Iceni, to revolt.(A monument to her is opposite Big Ben, actually it is ‘Liberty or Death’ theme) The Trinovantes and Catuvellauni (other tribes) joined, and the alliance assaulted the Roman colony at Camulodunum, looting and burning the town as well as slaying every man, woman and child they found. The governor Suetonius Paullinus, upon reaching London from his campaigning in the western part of the province, found the town indefensible with the few troops he had. As a result, Paullinus was forced to abandon the city and took only those who could afford to leave in time to retreat with him, leaving some behind. More repression followed, so that more moderate consules feared that Briton might turn into a province without subjects. Suetonius was recalled to Rome.
In the following years the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. The governor Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in what is today northern Scotland. This marked the high tide mark of Roman territory in Britain; shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans retired to a more defensible line along the Forth-Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.
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There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth-Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged, although others appear to have been abandoned. Roman coins and pottery are found circulating at native settlement sites in what are now the Scottish lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation.
Around 105, however, a serious setback appears to have happened at the hands of the tribes of Scotland; the Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south.
When Emperor Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. The wall was 73 miles long, 8-10 feet thick with a 30 feet ditch in front – built to last; some of it remains still. In the reign of Antoninus Pius the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth-Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military re-occupation of the Scottish lowlands. During the twenty year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall, Rome was concerned with continental issues - primarily problems in the Danube provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver appears in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade and it is likely that the Romans were boosting treaty agreements with cash payments. In 175 a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men arrived in Britannia, probably to re-inforce troops.
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By the time of the Roman occupation, Britain's tin exports to the Mediterranean had been largely eclipsed by the more convenient supply from Iberia. Gold, iron, lead, silver, jet, marble and pearls however were all exploited by the Romans in Britain along with more everyday commodities such as hunting dogs, animal skins, timber, wool, corn and slaves. Foreign investment created a vigorous domestic market and imports were often of exotic Continental items such as fine pottery, olive oil, glassware, and fruit.
By the third century, Britain's economy was diverse and well-established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north. The design of Hadrian's Wall especially catered to the need for customs inspections of merchants' goods. The two major political problems posed by Roman Britain: first, in order to maintain its security it had three legions stationed there. Second, moving the legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, with the result that Britain was defenceless to invaders.
During the middle of the third century the Roman empire was rent by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, although increasing inflation had its economic effect. Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong trade connections.
In the 4th century, Britain saw increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east, and the Irish in the west. A series of forts was built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when a general assault of Saxons and Irish, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate in 367. This crisis, sometimes called the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius with a string of military and civil reforms.
Another usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt in Segontium in 383, and crossed the Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned at this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all of the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were struggling after the catastrophic Battle of Adrianople in 378. Around 396, there were increasing barbarian raids in Britain. By 401 more troops were withdrawn to assist in the war against Alaric
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There were growing barbarian attacks, but focused on vulnerable rural settlements rather than the towns. Some villas such as Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited, although many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the fifth century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. New buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the fifth and sixth centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.
By 407 there were no new Roman coins going into circulation and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Pottery mass production probably ended a decade or two previously; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor probably adopted leather or wooden ones.
A Saxon invasion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons themselves, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. A later appeal for help by the British communities was rejected by the emperor Honorius in 410. He just sent the message: “The cantons should take the steps to defend themselves...” With the higher levels of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and small warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still aspiring to Roman ideals and conventions.
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By tradition, the pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts and Irish, though archaeology has suggested some official settlement as landed mercenaries as early as the third century. The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time many Britons fled to Brittany (whence its name). Of importance is the Battle of Dyrham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea. If we draw a V-shape from Chester to Southampton, we can trace places ending with –ing(s) e.g.Hastings – a trace of Saxon occupation. This was a lapse of Britan to dark barbaric times, which lasted for more than 200 years.
One of the favourite legends traced to those times is the legend of King Arthur and knights of the Round Table. Did he ever exist? Most scholars reject the historicity of the later legends of King Arthur, which seem to be set in this period, but some such as John Morris see it as evidence behind which may lie a plausible grain of truth. His realm might not have been found because there was no realm: Arthur was Dux Bellorum ( военный вождь ), fighting on horseback, mailed, a master of Roman military strategy – to Germanic invaders he seemed invincible and almost divine.
During their occupation of Britain, the Romans built an extensive network of roads, many of which are still in use today. The Romans also built water and sewage systems. A number of important settlements were founded by the Romans, during their occupation of Britain. Many of which still survive.Cities and towns which have Roman origins include: (with their Latin names in brackets)
Alcester - (Aluana)
Bath - (Aquae Sulis)
Caerleon - (Isca Silurum)
Caerwent - (Venta Silurum)
Canterbury - (Durovernum)
Carmarthen - (Moridunum)
Colchester - (Camulodonum)
Chichester - (Noviomagus)
Chester - (Deva)
Cirencester - (Corinium)
Dover - (Portus Dubris)
Dorchester - (Durnovaria)
Exeter - (Isca Dumnoniorum)
Gloucester - (Glevum)
Leicester - (Ratae Coritanorum)
London - (Londinium)
Lincoln - (Lindum)
Manchester - (Mamucium)
Northwich - (Condate)
St Albans - (Verulamium)
Towcester - (Lactodorum)
Winchester - (Venta Belgarum)
York - (Eboracum)
Evary town was laid complete with a forum, temples, courts of justice, goals, baths, market place and the main drain; indeed, the quality of life enjoyed within that period was not reached again till late Victorian times (especially the sanitation).
Religion in Roman Britain consisted originally of pagan worship. A common element was the combination of Roman gods and local Iron Age deities. The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain northern European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record. Worship of the emperor himself is widely recorded, especially at military sites. Oriental cults such as Mithraism and Christianity grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The Temple of Mithras is one example of the popularity of mystery religions amongst the rich urban classes and by the fourth century there is archaeological evidence of Christian worship; small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester.
The prestige of the empire influenced Britons' views of themselves for generations to come. Britain is also noteworthy as having the largest European region of the former Roman Empire which currently speaks neither (as a majority language): A Romance language (for example, Romania, where territory was under Roman control about half as long as Britain), nor a language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants (such as Greek), though Welsh exists as a minority language, with many borrowings from Latin, such as llaeth ("milk"), ffenestr ("window"). Port, fountain, mountain are also borrowed from Latin through Celtic. As to words borrowed directly, to this period belong words wall, street, measurements pound, inch, names of containers cup, dish, materials chalk, pitch. Roman influence is felt in the names of towns – element ‘chester’ originates in ‘caster’ (лагерь) – see the list of towns above.
Roman Britain feed-back tasks. Note: the questions are meant to provide kind of a rough plan for your examination answer; you are welcome to rearrange them in a more suitable way.
1. Explain what are: ‘Tin Islands’; ‘Caledonia’.
2. Comment upon the use of coinage and pottery for archeologists. What conclusions about the period were made with their help?
3. The names Gaius Julius Caesar, Emperor Claudius, Boudicca, Suetonius Paullinus, Emperor Hadrian, Emperor Honorius: what makes them important for the period?
4. Did King Arthur ever exist? Do you know any legends about him?
5. Comment upon the effect of Roman colonization upon the material culture of Britain. Has anything survived the test of the time?
6. Speak about the trace of Roman colonization in the English language.
7. Write out 3 dates you consider most important for the period. What happened?
8. Find on the map cities of Roman origin. Do they form any pattern? What word-building element is common for them? What about Saxon settlements?
9. Find English equivalents for: выплата дани, заложник, перешеек, клад, нападение варваров, система канализации, храм (языческий), язычество, упадок.
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