Organization of shipping operations
Organization of port operations.
Merchant sea ports are intended to perform economic and administrative functions.
I’d like to start with economic functions. They are: servicing of inbound/outbound vessels transportation, forwarding and warehousing operations, transshipment of cargo to the modes of transport( and vice versa), servicing of deep sea vessels’ passengers. To perform these functions merchant sea ports have water areas, land territories, warehouses, open storage facilities, cargo handling facilities, passenger terminals, approach ways for railway and motor transport, and adequate personnel.
As for administrative functions sea responsible for ensuring safe navigation and proper order within the port, including supervision for adherence to shipping regulations, registration of vessels in the State Register of Shipping, issue and check up of ship’s papers, diplomata and qualification certificates of ship officers, clearance of vessels inwards and outwards, organization of pilotage and towage service and other functions of Port Operation Management.
Port Operation Management is carried out by 3 channels.
The higher channel controls port operations as a whole and consists of several parts, departments. Such as operations, planning commerce, shipping, labour and wages, mechanization, technology, personnel, accounts, administrative, harbour master’s and other servicing departments. The head of the port is the general director who controls the entire port. Each department is managed by a department head. But such functions as operations , commerce and shipping are headed by deputy general directors. Safety navigation and proper order within the port are the responsibilities of the harbour master who is a deputy general director at the same time.
The middle channel of management controls cargo handling complexes and other production units of the port. (E.g. auxiliary service fleet, depots for motor and electric lift trucks, railway and motor cars, repair and maintenance shops, rigging shops etc.) The main production units of the port are cargo handling complexes where all loading/discharging operations are carried out.
To perform the operations each cargo handling complex comprises terminals, stevedore gangs, traffic control service, warehouse and open storage facilities staff and it’s headed by superintendent.
The lower channel of management is involved in a direct control of cargo handling process on berths and in warehouses. The control is effected by chief stevedores, warehouse superintendents and stevedore gang foremen.
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Nowadays each merchant sea port is a junction of different modes of transport, so the proper operation of related modes of transport are in dependence of good running of the port at each and every stage of transportation.
THE PORT OF ST. PETERSBURG
The sea port of St. Petersburg is a large centre of water communications in the North West of the Russian Federation, a junction of different modes of transportation — shipping by sea and river, railway and road transport. Position. — Latitude — 59°54' N, longitude — 30°15' E.
The port is situated on the islands of the Neva mouth, in the Nevskaya Guba (Neva Bay), in the eastern extremity of the Gulf of Finland. The port. is accessible for vessels with 10.5 m draught in fresh water and is entered by the 2 mile long Morskoy Canal (Seaway) stretching from the port's receiving buoy to the mouth of the Neva River. Owing to icebreaker assistance navigation is year-round.
Notice of ETA. — When proceeding to the port Masters must, latest 12 hours before arrival at the receiving buoy (Sea Pilot Station), advise the port controller through the Inflot Agency about ETA at the Pilot Station.
Pilotage is compulsory for all ships.
Port customs. — Masters must give notice of ships readiness for loading/discharging to the shipper/consignee through the agent in the port within customary office hours, the vessel having been cleared in and being in free pratique. Before loading ship's cargo holds must be cleaned and made ready to receive the cargo. Laytime is to count from 1 p.m. (for timber cargoes from 6 p.m.) if the notice of readiness is given before noon, and from 8 a.m. the next working day if the notice is given after noon within customary office hours which are from 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. SHEX. Loading/discharging is carried out daily in two shifts: from 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. and from 4 p.m. till midnight.
Dues and charges for services rendered to foreign ships, such as tonnage, canal, berth and pilotage dues and mooring/unmooring, shifting, towage, lighterage and cranage charges are paid in accordance with the port tariffs being in force.
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Agency. — Foreign sea-going vessels are attended to by Maritime Agencies.
Port facilities. — The cargo turnover of the port exceeds 11 mln. tons. The port handles general cargo, bulk cargo (ore, coal, fertilizers, building materials), grain, metals, timber etc. The leading export commodities are timber, plywood, paper, non-ferrous metals, machine tools, automobiles, industrial equipment, machinery etc. The dominating imports are cotton, wool, equipment, rolled steel, tubes, coffee- and cocoa-beans, fruit, grain and other consumer goods. The port is very well equipped and mechanized for handling all these cargoes. It has very efficient gantry cranes, hundreds of fork-lift trucks, electric trucks, conveyers, up-to-date straddle carriers, side loaders and sophisticated general purpose machines which facilitate lifting, conveying, stacking, turning, shifting and rotating loads. For such goods as heavy logs, extraweights and long pieces of cargo there are appliances with a sufficient jib outstretch and maximum jib height. For handling containers there are container bridges. There are also shore based and floating coal- and grain-loaders, floating cranes of 15to 100 tons capacity, a 350-ton floating crane being available in case of need. Numerous other cargo handling machines and intra-port transport facilities are available. The port has single- and multi-floor warehouses, modern sheltered storage spaces for general cargo and concrete floor yards for open storage, an elevator and a cold storage facility fitted out with high-duty cooling and freezing plants enabling to keep the right temperature for food perishables, such as meat, butter, eggs, fish, fruit etc. Its more than 100 berths and warehouses are linked by railways and approach ways for motor transport.
Cargo operations. — The port is managed by the general director, his deputy general director operational - being responsible for the forwarding service, the cargo loading/ unloading, organization service and the commerce service. The forwarding service, headed by the forwarding office manager, deals with settling with shipowners, ship agents, customs, inspections, intermodal transport means, cargo owners and their representatives different matters related to reception, delivery, storage etc. of all the goods passing through the port and matters related to cargo documents. The cargo loading/unloading operations are effected by a number of stevedoring companies. The main production units of the service are cargo handling complexes organizing and performing loading/discharging and other cargo operations (reception, warehousing, storage, securing of cargo etc.). At present in the port there are some cargo handling complexes specializing in handling specific cargoes and servicing specific cargo traffic routes.
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The port of St. Petersburg is most important container port inRussia.
There are two competing terminals in the port. The first and biggest, appropriately named First Container Terminal, is managed by Sea Port of St Petersburg (Sea Port) a privately owned company made up of nine stevedoring and service businesses, but with 49% of its non voting shares still owned by the state. The second is operated by Petrolesport at berth 56 , in the timber port.
The main advantage of First Container Terminal is that it is a purpose built facility with an annual capacity of around 240.000TEU, which could easily be expanded to 500.000TEU if need be. It contains three feeder vessel berths in a straight line, worked by four ship-to-shore gantry cranes. Straddle carriers handle internal container movements, and there are a further four rail mounted gantry cranes for transferring rail borne traffic.
Organization of shipping operations
In the whole World each country has to import the articles and commodities it does not produce itself and also it has to export its own manufactured articles and raw materials. Foreign trade involves specialized knowledge and highly-trained personnel. And also the transportation matter is a very important part of any transaction with the goods between the Buyer and the Seller.
In accordance with the above said there are a lot of transportation, forwarding, agencies, etc. companies which offer and support the transportation services. But frequently the large merchant firms have got their own import-export department which deal with all the transportation questions.
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Typically, the customer orders forwarding agent to organize cargo transportation. At this moment hard work with cargo transportation begins and it must be done highly professional and due time. Cargo may be transported to the port terminal by several ways, first by railway, than by motor transport and by river transport. Before vessel’s arrival forwarder must prepare all necessary documents and preparations. First of all he instructs terminal about shipment of appointed consignment to certain vessel by means so called shipping order form. Shipping order and cargo list must be verified in customs house. Then on the basis of these documents preliminary Cargo plan is drawn up. The Cargo plan is to be signed by ship’s Master before loading. Copy of shipping order is handed over to the shipping agent and it confirms consignment‘s readiness for loading. Before the commencement of loading forwarding agent, stevedore and port authority’s representative must check up cargo spaces. Cargo tallying and condition control during loading are carried out by agent’s tallyman on behalf of cargo owner and stevedoring company. On the basis of tallymen’s lists cargo mate signs the shipping order and it becomes mate’s receipt. In the case of shortage or damaged condition of goods or defects of packing he is to make appropriate remarks in this mate‘s receipt. The mate’s receipts are delivered to the shippers, to the stevedoring company or to the agent. Then Shipping agent makes out Bs/L and delivers it together with manifest, which must be signed by master, on board the vessel, the copy of manifest is also kept on board to be presented to the customs house when required.
After vessel‘s sailing from the port forwarder finds out vessel‘s ETA (excepted time of ship’s arrival) and after proper checking of all shipping documents he sends complete set to the customer. On receiving of the precise ETA from the ship’s Master, the Agent is to make preliminary arrangements for unloading the cargo. At the port of discharging cargo must be unloaded in accordance with relevant port regulations. The Agent notifies the Port Authority and the consignee about ship’s arrival. Agent is charged to secure a berth, to obtain sufficient labour and cargo handling facilities. The receiver will sign the Bill of Lading if the cargo has been taken by him to his complete satisfaction. Such endorsement is called “clean receipt”.
According to the contract the agent is bound to collect from the receivers of goods the freight and other charges due to the shipowners. The master of the ship may deliver the cargo only after he ascertained that the freight and other charges have been paid.
This is a short example of the cargo transportation by sea.
Agency
The ship’s agent is the local expertise who will represent the owner in every port the ship visits. To the owner of an international trading ship, which rarely calls at her “home” port, the appointment of an agent in every foreign port is essential, ensuring that the visit to the port will go smoothly. The ship and those aboard her may never have visited that port before, they may not speak the language or even understand it, but the agent will ensure that everything they will need will be delivered.
The agent will ensure that the paperwork is perfect, that the tugs and the linesmen are on hand, and that the pilot is booked, that the berth is ready and the stevedores alerted. The agent will have told the Master about any special problems of the port approaches, or any “customs of the port” which might be unusual. He will have given some rough idea of the disbursements - the costs - which that ship will incur during her visit. He may have the job of selling cargo space and will have some responsibility for ensuring that the cargo and the ship arrive in the port at the same time!
The agent will be one of the first persons aboard the ship upon arrival, smoothing the path of the Master with the customs, port health and other official visitors. Agents will be hugely welcome for the mail they will bring, and local currency to enable the crew to have a couple of trips ashore. The agent will invariably have a long list of demands from the ship to fulfil: for example, the Chief Officer wants 300 tons of fresh water. The Chief Engineer wants 100 tons of gasoil, 400 tons of heavy fuel oil, oily waste to be landed and a list of engine room spares as long as the agent’s arm. The ship is running out of eggs and needs fresh vegetables.
There will be two crew members going on leave, who will have to be paid off, helped to the airport and seen off, with their replacements met, delivered to the ship and signed on.
The agent knows his port and its community thoroughly, and is able to help with everything from the best place to get a haircut, why the stevedore appears to have ignored the stowage plan and when the vessel is likely to sail. Problems are his business.
With the ship ready to depart and the agent having shaken hands with the Master and been one of the last persons down the gangway, the next phase of the job begins with the bills that require to be paid on behalf of the owner; all the costs that have been incurred during the visit. Hopefully, it will have been a positive outcome, with Master and agent getting on well, the complications unravelled and the ship full of well-paying cargo, a good relationship established.
The most important agency organization is FONASBA ( The federation of National Associations of Ship Brokers and Agents). FONASBA was formed in 1969 to speak with authority on behalf of the shipping profession in so far as shipbrokers and agents are concerned, to promote fair and equitable practices in those professions, to co-operate with other international maritime bodies and to consult and advise on any matters of concern to the shipping industry.
Full membership of the Federation is open only to national associations or similar organisations of shipbrokers and agents and is confined to one such body per country. Associate membership may be granted to other shipping entities, including individual companies, at the discretion of the Council, while Club membership is granted to companies and organisations that provide specific insurance, consultancy or information services to shipbrokers and agents.
The current Full membership of the Federation comprises nearly 40 countries represented by national organisations with a further 7 countries represented by Associate members. There are 4 Club members.
Agency – Ship Agent`s duties
Long before a ship enters a foreign port many formalities for clearing the ship inwards are carried out. In many countries port dues and charges are paid beforehand. Preliminary arrangements for tug-boats, pilots, medical and customs officers are made before the ship’s arrival. An appropriate berth must be secured beforehand too. As a rule cargo handling operations are planned and agreed upon with the consignees and port authorities in advance too.
It is quite evident then, that there must be someone in the port who could do such a lot of work in due time. Practically this work is done by ship agents.
Ship agents are mostly private companies which conclude special contracts or agreements with shipping companies. Under these agreements ship agents undertake to service to the ships owned or chartered by a shipping company. That means that the agent will do most of the work required from ships by local regulations and customs.
In general, the ship agent undertakes to perform the following functions: first of all, he protects and promotes in all respects, the interests of the ship and her shipowners. He takes all the measures to help the captain to discharge and load the ship as soon as possible in order to reduce ship’s port time.
If the cargo is loaded and discharged for the ship’s account, that is, if the cost of these operations is included in the rate of freight, the agent hires stevedores to do the job. On shipowner’s instructions the liner agent may canvass cargo and passengers to avoid unprofitable transit of the ship in ballast.
At the request of the shipowners the agent collects freight and other payments due to the ship. In such cases the money collected by the agent is immediately remitted to the shipowners.
The agent performs clearance of the ship, that is, he pays port dues and charges, helps the vessel officers to carry out the necessary formalities and obtains free pratique and permission for the vessel to enter or leave the port.
The agent undertakes to settle the ship’s disbursements. This means that he settles accounts with shipchandlers, suppliers, repair shops, stevedores and others or, in other words, he pays them money for the goods bought or the services rendered to the ship.
Later the shipping company refunds this money to the agents.
One more and a very important function is performed by the agent. He helps the captain to arrange receiving and delivering cargo alongside the vessel. He also helps him to settle claims arising between the vessel and other persons or organizations.
For servicing the ship the agent receives from the shipowners appropriate remuneration. The amount of this remuneration is fixed in the agreement.
Stevedoring operations.
The main purpose of stevedoring companies is to perform economic functions. They are responsible for loading/discharging operations, servicing of inbound/outbound Russia and foreign ships transportation, forwarding and warehousing operations, intermodal cargo handling operations, servicing of deep sea vessels’ passengers. To perform these functions stevedoring companies have water areas, berths, land territories, warehouses and open storage facilities, cargo handling facilities, passenger terminals, approach ways for railway and motor transport, and an adequate personnel.
The process of loading is always effected in full compliance with all general regulations and local customs. And this is the responsibility not only for the Stevedoring company but for the Master and cargo officer too. The loading and discharging operations are effected in accordance with the cargo plan which is made out by the Cargo officer or the Agent in the port.It has become a common practice nowadays to invite special cargo surveyors before the beginning of loading or discharging to inspect the holds. Usually such service is provided by independent surveying company to avoid disputes in future in case of damage to the cargo.
The first thing that must be tacking into consideration before the beginning of loading is ships stability and seaworthiness during the voyage. Other consideration is safety of the cargo.
It is important to say that a contract between shipping company and stevedoring company should be concluded. Under the contract the stevedore undertakes to:
Discharge cargo from or to load cargo into vessel’s cargo spaces to or from the pier.
Provide and pay for all necessary stevedoring services and labour.
Provide cargo handling gears and equipment.
Load and lay dunnage to prevent the cargo from shifting.
Make all necessary preparations against the arrival of vessel to handle it in quickest possible way.
Stevedoring
Stevedoring agreement is concluded between the shipowners and the stevedores. The owners engage the stevedores to perform full stevedoring services on all vessels presently owned, managed, or chartered by the owners in the certain ports whenever the owners have right to nominate their own stevedores and the stevedores agree to provide such services for the owners in accordance with terms and conditions of the agreement.
Stevedoring Co’s duties:
1) to discharge cargo from or load cargo into vessels holds, tweendecks, shelter decks, on decks, deep tanks and other usual cargo spaces to or from a place of rest on the pier;
2) to provide and pay for all the necessary stevedoring services, including winchmen, hatch tenders, tractor and crane operators, fork-lift drivers, foremen and others also stevedoring supervision as is needed for the proper and efficient conduct of the work;
3) to provide cargo handling gears and equipment such as hooks, pendant nets, trays, pallets, auto-lifting hooks, slings, hand trucks, mechanical trucks, etc.;
4) to oad and lay dunnage boards as required during loading for proper stowage of cargo;
5) to work two or more gangs simultaneously in one hatch when requested and practical to do so provided the necessary additional booms, falls and winches are supplied by the vessel or from shore facilities;
6) to perform initial removal and final replacement of beams, hatch boards;
7) to discharge cargo according to individual Bill of lading marks and load cargo according to individual shipping orders;
8) to shift gangs as required between hatches;
9) to make all necessary preparations against the arrival of each vessel so that loading and/or discharging is commenced immediately on the first resumption of the work after the arrival;
10) to arrange the work in such a manner that each vessel will receive the quickest possible dispatch.
The stevedores will take every precaution and care to protect from damage and disappearance of ropes and/or tackle provided by and/or belonging to the vessel; the owners to do the same for gear etc. provided from shore.
The stevedores will undertake and cover the cost of insurance against claims for loss of life or personal injury to persons employed by stevedores or to third parties.
The stevedores will indemnity and hold entirely harmless the owners against any claim or action whatever may be made or brought by any workman or employee of the stevedores or any other persons or person for personal injury or death sustained during the progress of work on or around the owner’s vessels unless such injury or death is caused by the fault of the ship’s officers, crew or equipment.
FORWARDING
Forwarding is a very complicated thing. A reliable freight forwarder is a key link between the Shipper and the Consignee especially in the foreign commerce. Close cooperation of the Shipper and the Forwarding agent not only provides a prompt delivery of the goods to the Consignee without any extra costs but can also be a long-way in developing long-term relationships with customers. The Forwarding agent should not only be able to solve problems arising with cargoes at ports of destination but to transport them rapidly using seatransport railway and road transport (multi-modal forwarding). The freight forwarder can base either in the importer's country or in the country of the final destination. It is necessary to have a constant communication with the forwarding agent in order to maintain control over the transportation of goods.
Each shipment should be provided with all documentation. It should be accompanied by a B/L or a waybill, a commercial invoice, a certificate of origin and certificate of safety for a number of commodities.
Terms of delivery and the value of goods should be clearly shown in the commercial invoice. An additional certification may be required for some commodities. The certificate of safety is required for all imports. It is required in Russia to certify such cargoes as food and pharmaceuticals by the Russian Ministry of health and the Russian Veterinary section. The final consignees, their full addresses, phone and fax numbers should be clearly shown on the waybills. The shipping of hazardous cargoes requires special attention. It is best to wait till the FA gives his "all right" for such shipments after he has made sure that all documentation for them is in perfect order. Otherwise hazardous goods can be seized.
Since the January 1997 Russian importers should register their contracts with a Russian bank and obtain a document called "the import passport" that confirms the fact that the Importer has made payment for the import by contract through a Russian bank.
The Importer should make a deposit to obtain a temporary customs clearance for goods at the port of entry if it is not the final destination. The final customs clearance takes place at the final destination once cargo is presented to the customs to be inspected. Customs may be cleared and duties paid at the port of entry as well. To clear at the port of entry the Importer must be registered with the Customs of this port in order to effect bank transfers to the Customs.
Forwarders or (freight) forwarding agents are used by exporters to arrange both import and export shipments. Their services include collecting the consignment, arranging shipment and, if required, packing and handling all documentation, including making out the Bill of Lading, obtaining insurance, sending commercial invoices and paying the shipping company for their clients. They also inform the importer's forwarding agent that the shipment is on its way by sending an advice note and he, hi turn, will inform his client, send the goods on to him, arrange for the goods to be stored, until collected. Many forwarding agents in importing countries also act as clearing agents, ensuring that the goods are cleared through the customs and are sent to the importer.
As forwarding agents handle many shipments, they can collect consignments for the same destination and get competitive groupage rates for sending a lot of consignments in one shipment. However, many exporters find it more convenient to deal direct with the forwarding agents in the importer's country, and some importers prefer to deal with their supplier's forwarding agent.
FORWARDING FREIGHT TO RUSSIA
A reliable freight forwarder is a key link between the U.S. shipper sending goods to Russia, and the Russian consignee awaiting their safe arrival. Working closely with your freight forwarder to ensure timely, cost-effective delivery can go a long way in developing long-term relationships with Russian customers.
The shipper should judge carefully their forwarder's ability to resolve problems at leading ports of entry, as well as to on-forward cargoes to final destination outside Russia's major transportation centers. This requires either an actual office or a strong agent based in the country. A commitment to communication is key to maintaining control over any particular shipment. The U.S. based freight forwarder must have a way to keep the shipper informed of the shipment's progress.
Be sure to include all relevant documentation with each shipment. At a minimum, every shipment should include a commercial invoice, a certificate of origin and a certificate of safety (conformity). Invoices should be translated into Russian and clearly show the terms of delivery and the customs value of the shipment.
Some products may require additional certificatiorL as well. Certificates of safety, it should be noted, are now required for virtually all imports. Major exceptions are food and Pharmaceuticals, which require certification from the Russian Ministry of Health and the Russian Veterinary section, respectively. The final consignee should be clearly shown on all waybills, with full address, phone number and fax number.
Documentation of hazardous shipments requires special attention. It is best to allow your freight forwarder to "call-forward" such shipments, which allows your forwarder to hold the shipment until they can confirm that all documentation is in perfect order. Hazardous shipment can be seized if not accompanied by all required documentation. Severe civil and criminal penalties apply for violating Russian law governing the movement of hazardous material.
Import Passports
Since January, Russian importers have been required to register their contracts with their Russian bank and to obtain an 'import passport', which certifies that the Russian importer has made payment for the import by contract through a Russian bank. Many customs posts recognize the commercial invoice as the contract but it must clearly designate the shipper, the consignee, the purchase order number, the total price to be paid, the terms of payment and the Russian bank processing the payment. If possible, include a document that actually contains the word "contract", and has all of the aforementioned information.
The importer must also make a deposit to obtain temporary customs clearance for goods entering the country at a port of entry other than the final destination. Original documents used in processing temporary import clearance must be forwarded to the customs authority at the port of entry. Final customs clearance takes place at the final destination once cargo is presented to customs there for inspection. Customs may be cleared and duties paid at the port of entry. To clear at the port of entry, the importer must be registered with customs there, in order to effect bank transfers to these locations.
The best way to get up-to-date information on documentation, payment procedures, and customs formalities for your shipment is to work through a forwarder. They should provide you with a list of what is required for shipment to any country they serve. It pays to take the time before shipping to know not only what is required of the shipper, but of the consignee as well
TYPES OF CARGO SHIPS.
On one hand all cargo ships are divided into two types: dry cargo ships & tankers. On other hand, cargo ships may be divided into universal ships design to carry principal different types of cargo & specialized ships design to carry one type of cargo (e.g. bulk cargo, timber, refrigerated goods, oil etc.)
UNIVERSAL VESSELS. Universal vessels can carry practically any types of cargoes, including refrigerated & liquids (in special tanks). However, most of them are designed to carry certain types of goods. Thus, liners are intended to carry general cargo, packaged cargo, containers, & also, in dependence of the route, special, liquid & refrigerated cargoes. The modern tramp travels at between 12 & 15 knots. Its deadweight varies between 2.000 & 10.000 tons.
The cargo spaces are holds, tweendecks & deeptanks. Holds & tweendecks are used to carry general & bulk cargoes. Deep-tanks may be of two types. The first type is design to carry liquids only. The second type is design to carry liquid & dry cargoes in turn. Empty deeptanks are also used for liquid ballast.Typical universal standard design vessel is of 14.700 dwt (9.000 gross & 6.000 net tons). Her overall length is 450 feet, beam 69 feet, draught 31 feet. Her five holds are arranged so that numbers one to four holds are forward of the superstructure & only number five hold is abaft it.With a single diesel engine & screw she has a service speed of 14.5 knots, her fuel consumptions being around 22 tons per day. She provides accommodation for a crew of thirty.
MULTI-PURPOSE VESSELS.Nowadays universal vessels are gradually being transformed into multi-purpose vessels. Multi-purpose vessels, retaining versatility of universal vessels, that is their capability to carry different bulk & general cargoes, are becoming, to a certain extent, specialized. Thus, all multi-purpose vessels are adapted to carry standard containers. Some of them are adapted to carry rolled vehicles or heavy/bulky cargoes.
CONTAINER SHIPS.The cellular type full container ship is equipped to carry ctrs in the holds & on the hatch covers. Within the holds of the vessel there is a cellular structure of angle bars forming ctr guides into which the ctrs are stowed, on top of another. The ctrs carried on deck are carefully secured to ensure that they will not shift.
RO-RO VESSELS.Ro-Ro vessels are designed to carry all sorts of rolled vehicles & motor cars – by driving them to on/off the ship - & unitized cargo & lengthy/bulky cargo units. The type of access & distribution facilities are numerous, each designed to serve a specific purpose, such as: stern/bow doors & side ports, the doors being normally hydraulically operated; access ramps, internal ramps; hoistable platforms, lifts & bulkhead doors.
BULKERS.Bulkers are single-deck ships. The cargo is often shot straight into the hold & discharged by grabs, pneumatic suction plants & other bulk handling methods. The modern ocean-going bulk carrier dates fm the mid-fifties. Subsequent development has led to an increase in ship size, though not to the same extent as in tankers. There are bulk carriers of over 150.000 dwt today, but the largest of those in normal use are 60.000 & 70.000 dwt, known as Panamax size, while “handy size” bulkers are those in the 25.000-30.000-dwt range.
TANKERS.At present abt 1/3 of the word’s shipping tonnage is tanker tonnage. Tankers are especially designed to carry liquids in bulk. Their construction is entirely different fm that of dry cargo ships: they are built on a cellular system by which the vessel is divided longitudinally & transversely into compartments. Tankers are equipped with pipes, valves & pumps to transfer cargo fm/to the shore & fm one tank to another when necessary. They also vary in size, fm 2.000 dwt coasting tanker to supertankers of 70.000 dwt. They speed vary between 10 & 20 knots.
Specialized Vessels
Specialized vessels are designed to carry special types/kinds of cargo. Specialized vessels may be divided into three groups:
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