Mathematical Methods and Operations

Ростовский государственный университет

 

С Б О Р Н И К

УСТНЫХ ТЕМ НА АНГЛИЙСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ

 

 

 

 

Ростов-на-Дону

1998

 Печатается по решению кафедры английского языка гуманитарных факультетов РГУ

 

 

СБОРНИК УСТНЫХ ТЕМ НА АНГЛИЙСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ И ПОСТУПАЮЩИХ В АСПИРАНТУРУ РГУ

 

 

Ростов-на-Дону, 1998, с.5

 

Составители:

Часть I – старший преподаватель Апрышко Е.П.

Часть II - коллектив кафедры английского языка

Гуманитарных факультетов РГУ

 

Редактор - доцент Пшегусова Г.С.  

     Данное пособие состоит из двух частей. В первую входят устные темы: Rostov State University; At the Conference; Rostov-on-Don; Geography and Cities of the US/the UK; the Political of the US/the UK; American Traditions, Customs and Festivals; Customs, Traditions and Festivals of Great Britain; Higher Education in the USA/Great Britain, .

     Во вторую часть включены варианты устной темы “Специальность” для студентов всех гуманитарных факультетов и специальностей.

     Данные темы также включены в список тем, вынесенных на вступительные экзамены в аспирантуру РГУ. Пособие может быть рекомендовано студентам, изучающим английский язык и в других вузах.

 

© Кафедра английского языка гуманитарных факультетов РГУ, 1998

© Оригинал-макет: типография “Экспертное Бюро – Т”

PART 1

ROSTOV STATE UNIVERSITY

 

THE BASICS:

Name:                     Rostov State University

Date of Foundation: 1915

Number of Faculties: 11

Number of Students: over 10,000

Rank:                      Fourth among Russian Universities,

                                 Fortieth - in the world

 

Rostov State University is the largest and best higher educational establishment in southern Russia and the Northern Caucasus.

Its history dates back to 1869 when the Russian Imperial University in Warsaw, Poland, was founded and then transferred, in 1915, to Rostov-on-Don because of World War I. In the past, many well-known scholars worked at the university, including: 

D.D.Mordukhai-Boltovskoy, F.D.Gakhov, R.G.Khaplanov, D.Y.Dioniseyev, V.A.Karpitsky, A.I.Yegorov, A.A.Zhdanov, S.A.Zakharov, N.A.Rozhansky, A.B.Kogan, M.S.Volobuyev-Artyomov, N.I.Pokrovsky, M.V.Klochkov and A.M.Yevlakhov.

Many outstanding scientists and respected public figures are graduates of the university, including the members of the Academy of Sciences V.M.Glushkov and Y.Tretyakov, as well as the writer A.I.Solzhenitzyn.

The university ranks fourth among Russian universities surpassed only by the State University in Moscow, Saint Petersburg and Irkutsk. According to the findings of a report by American researchers, Rostov University ranks fortieth among the higher educational establishments of the world.

The teaching staff of Rostov State University has high scientific and academic potential. There are currently 1,007 teachers and 1,120 researchers on the university staff including 12 Members of the Academy of Sciences, 178 Doctors of Science and Full Professors, more than 1,912 Candidates of Science (Ph. D. equivalent), 11 National Prize-Winners, and 14 Distinguished Scientists of the Russian Federation.

Rostov State University is an educational, scientific and production unit, consisting of 11 Faculties: Biology and Soil; Geology and Geography; Mechanics and Mathematics, Physics; Chemistry; History; Psychology; Philology and Journalism; Philosophy; Economics; Law. The university students are trained in 26 specializations. There are 7 research institutes, the “Piezopribor” Scientific and Technology Design Office, a Computer Centre, a University Library, the University Press, an Institute for Retraining and Improvement of Teachers` Proficiency in the Humanities and Social Sciences, an agricultural research centre, including an Experimental Farm, the fieldwork centre ‘Nikel” (Adygeya), a summer recreation and sport camp “Limanchick”, on the Black Sea and many other teaching and research branch units.

At the university there are currently 6,048 full-time students, 1,249 part-time students and 2,457 students taking correspondence courses.

The course of study at the University is split into 4 academic years if one takes day classes for Bachelor’s Degree, and 6 academic years for Master’s Degree. It also takes 6 years for those studying through evening and correspondence courses.

The academic year is divided into 2 semesters. At the end of each semester the students take tests, semester or final exams. The students have to submit their graduation thesis paper at the end of their course of study. In addition, some faculties require students to write term papers or projects in the course of the academic year.

The established curriculum includes subjects in the social and natural sciences and foreign languages. During the academic year the students are given lectures on certain compulsory and elective courses in different subjects. The students attend classes scheduled in the time-table.

After graduating from the University, the graduates receive Bachelor’s and Master’s Degrees; those who took a five-year course receive Diplomas of higher education. Upon completion of the required three-year courses, based on research and the writing of a dissertation, Candidate and Doctorate Degrees are conferred. Academic Boards are fully accredited by the state to award Candidate and Doctoral Degrees in 30 specializations.

International activities at Rostov State University include undergraduate, graduate and post-graduate training of international students, on both a scholarship and tuition basis, joint research projects, and student and teacher exchange programs.

The “Internauka” Centre for International Academic, Scientific and Technological Cooperation was founded by Rostov State University together with other regional institutions of higher education. In the “Russian Universities” research project of the Russian State Committee for Higher Education , Rostov State University was designated the leading institution in the field of “The Integration of Russian Universities into the World System of Science, Education and Culture”. The university also heads the program for establishing the Rostov Innovation and Technology Centre. Internet technology helps both teachers and students work and study independently, using new approaches to the teaching/learning process.

The scholars of Rostov State University have strong and productive international contacts with scholars and researchers from the USA, Germany, Great Britain, France, Israel, Italy, Yugoslavia, Poland, China, Turkey, Bulgaria, Greece and other countries.

Rostov State University is taking part in a number of trans-European projects on education, including “TEMPUS-2”, “TACIS” and others. Included among its partners are the University of Dortmund (Germany), Strathclyde University (Glasgow, the UK), University of Piraeus (Greece), New York University (USA).

According to the Law on Education, Rostov-on-Don State University was accredited in all of its 26 specializations by the State Certifying Commission for Institutions of Higher Learning of the Russian Federation. It is among the top ten institutes of higher education in Russia.

AT THE CONFERENCE

Scientific meetings and conferences are regularly held at Rostov State University. As a rule, they are held in April. A lot of students take part in them because

· the participants have an excellent opportunity to learn up-to-date information;

· scientific conferences provide the students and post-graduates with an understanding of issues in their area of specialization;

· the participants have lots of possibilities to take part in professional discussions, both formal and informal;

· they can voice and exchange their opinions;

· scientific meetings and conferences are a good chance for the students and instructors to communicate with each other.

I often \ seldom \ regularly participate in the scientific gatherings held both in our University and other higher educational establishments of Rostov-on-Don. In 199… I took part in the conference that was held at … department. The main goal in holding the conference was to discuss various aspects of …

The Scientific Program included:

· an opening session;

· workshops (sessions of working groups);

· a general closing session.

The total number of papers included in the Program were …

The opening ceremony took place on April … . During the opening and closing stages of the Conference the participants were addressed by the Dean of the … department… .

The conference lasted for … days. I made a report in the workshop … .

The range of subjects considered was quite large. The chairman proposed a (7)-item agenda and presented it to the members of the jury and the reporters. Each participant was allowed 10 minutes for the normal presentation of his paper. Of course, the time was insufficient to cover the subject fully. When all the papers were read there was a lively and invigorating discussion. The purpose of the discussion was to extract ideas from the audience. The results of the discussion were recorded in the minutes. The minutes were approved by the members and signed by the Chairman.

The Conference was concluded on April … in the atmosphere of mutual understanding and a wish to continue research. Later, the abstracts of the papers were published in a separate book.

I think the Conference was fruitful and professionally valuable.

 

ROSTOV-ON-DON

The Gateway to the Caucasus

 

THE BASICS: 

City Population: 1,250,000

Major Industries: Machine building (harvesters, helicopters, refrigerators,                            cultivators). Shipping and Transport. Agriculture. Coalтmining. Food. Light industry. Chemical production.

 

The first settlers of the Don River steppe country were called Cossacks. They were serfs who had escaped from Moscow in the 16^th century.

  By Russian standards, Rostov is a relatively young city. It was founded first as a customs house on the high, west bank of the Don River in 1749. Twelve years later, in 1761, the daughter of Peter the Great, Empress Elizabeth, ordered the construction of a fortress at the place which is now Kirov Square. The fortress was one of the main military bases of the Russian Army on the Azov coast during the Russian-Turkish War. The famous Russian General Suvorov visited the fortress in 1788. In honour of this visit one of the streets of Rostov is called Suvorov Street. A city grew up around the fort and it was named after the Russian Saint, Dmitri Rostovsky. In 1806 Emperor Alexander added “-on-Don” to the city`s name to distinguish it from the smaller, Golden Ring city of Rostov the Great in the Yaroslavl region.

  Rostov developed rapidly in the 19th century. It became the leading centre of trade and transport in the south of Russia. Rostov is linked by waterways to five seas. Rostov has, at various times, earned nicknames such as “The Chicago of Russia” because of its rapid economic growth, “The Liverpool of Russia” because of its extensive port activities and “The Third Russian Metropolis” after Moscow and St. Petersburg.

During World War II Rostov was twice occupied by the Nazis and most of the city was destroyed. Soon afterward, however, the inhabitants rebuilt the city and reestablished its position as the leading city for trade and business in the South of Russia.

Rostov is a major transportation hub. It is called the Gateway to the Caucasus. Rostov-on-Don is a railway junction and major river port.

Rostov-on-Don`s advantageous geographical location - with direct sea access, and a network of navigable rivers and canals makes Rostov the central connection between the European part of Russia and the Caucasus. This, combined with the spirit of free enterprise, creates a special economic climate which strongly supports the development of business. The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development has set up its headquarters in Rostov. There are 12 TACIS projects in the city, as well as the British Know-How fund, Opportunity International, the International Executive Service Corps, World Bank Loans and The United States Peace Corps.

Rostov is one of the most culturally diverse cities in Russia. It is a city of science and students. There are many educational establishments here including: Rostov State University, the Medical University, Pedagogical University, the Don State Technical University, and the Academy of National Economy. Rostov State University is among the top ten institutes of higher education in Russia.

  Rostov-on-Don has many theatres, cinemas, museums, stadiums and hotels. The centre of Rostov, where most business occurs, is easily learned. The main street, Bolshaya Sadovaya, runs parallel to the River Don and is crowded with stores, shops, restaurants and cafes. New retail stores are opening faster than one can keep track of. Nike, Addidas, Levis, Barbi, Lego, Reebok, Sony, Phillips and Global USA are just some of the stores you`ll recognize as you walk the streets of Rostov. Bolshaya Sadovaya leads to Theatre Square, where demonstrations and festivals take place on holidays. The Maxim Gorki Drama Theatre, a building of unique design, shaped to resemble a tractor, was erected on this square in 1936. Destroyed during the war, the theatre took a very long time to restore. It was reopened in March 1963. Besides the Drama Theatre, guests of Rostov may visit the Musical Comedy Theatre, the Philharmonic Society, the Theatre of Young Spectators, the Puppet Show Theatre and the Circus. The city`s museums display interesting exhibits and collections. The Museum of Fine Arts on Pushkin Street has oil paintings by the well-known battle painter, Vereshchagin, and pictures by Aivazovsky, Shishkin, Levitan, Perov, Repin and others. It is open to all who wish to get acquainted with these Russian masters. The Museum of Local Lore offers tourists many interesting exhibits which reveal the history of the freedom-loving Cossacks. The exhibition of “Rare Findings” with Scythian and Sarmarian gold is of particular interest for visitors. 

  Rostov is a beautiful and lively city. The Rostovites are fond of their famous Quiet Don. The Nobel Laureates Mikhail Sholokhov (from Veshenskaya) whose novel Quiet Flows the Don is still a local favourite and Alexander Solzhenitsyn, who studied mathematics at Rostov State University both called Rostov home. Anton Chekhov was raised and educated in nearby Taganrog, where several museums commemorate this favourite son.

  More than 20 different nationalities live and work together in Rostov giving it the atmosphere of cultural tolerance and friendship.

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

THE BASICS:

Official name: The United States of America (US or USA)

Status:          a federal republic, a union of fifty states

Area:            9,372,614 square kilometres

Population:  265,562,845 people

Capital:        Washington, D.C. (the District of Columbia),

                     567,094 people

               

                      The Geography of America

The United States of America is a big and diverse country. It is the fourth largest country in the world after Russia, Canada and China.

The United States of America is in the central part of the North American Continent. The country is washed by the Atlantic Ocean on the east and by the Pacific Ocean on the west. In the north, the USA shares its border with Canada and in the south with Mexico.

The present territory of the USA consists of three separate parts:

n the USA proper (the continental USA);

n Alaska ( in the north-western projection of North America);

n the Hawaiian Islands ( in the centre of the Pacific Ocean).

The continental US is divided into three areas:

Eastern - a highland;

Central - a plain

Western - mountainous, including the Rocky Mountains, the Cordillera and Sierra Nevada.

The chief rivers are the Mississippi River with its tributaries, the Missouri and the Ohio, also the Rio Grand, the Colorado and the Columbia. The Mississippi River – called by Native Americans “Father of Waters” – lives up to that tribute to its size, power, and majesty. The second longest river in the world after the Nile, the Mississippi extends almost 4,000 miles.

In the northern part of the USA there is a region of the five Great Lakes (Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario). The Lakes play an important role in the economic life of both the United States of America and Canada.

The USA has many climates. There are places that are warm all year round, and there are places covered with ice and snow where summer never comes.

The USA is a highly developed industrial country. It is rich in oil, gas, copper, gold, silver and other metals. The country has rich deposits of coal and iron ore in the Appalachian range, and oil and gas in Texas and California.

Of all the regions in the continental U.S., Alaska and Hawaii are in sharp contrast to each other. The geography and climate and kinds of people who have settled them have shaped their destinies differently. But all are bound together by a way of life that is American.

Main American Cities

Washington, D.C.

Washington is the capital of the United States of America. The city was named after George Washington, the first American President. Washington was founded in 1791 and, from the start, was planned as the capital. It is situated on the left side of the Potomac River in the District of Columbia.

 TheDistrict of Columbia was named in honour of Christopher Columbus who discovered America. It stretches for 10 square miles and it is not part of any state.

Washington is a political, administrative and cultural centre. It is the seat of the US Government.

Washington is like no other city in the USA. New York may be the centre of finance, shopping, and entertainment, but Washington is the home of government. The White House, where the US President lives and works,the Capitol, the home of the US Congress, and the Supreme Court are all in Washington, D.C.

A few places of interest in Washington are the Lincoln Memorial, the Washington Monument, the Thomas Jefferson Memorial (dedicated to Thomas Jefferson, one of the authors of the Declaration of Independence), the Library of Congress, the John F. Kennedy Centre (the National Cultural Centre), the National Gallery of Art, and the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier.

Washington has many museums. Among them are: the National Museum of American History, National Archives, National Air and Space Museum, the Natural History Museum and the Smithsonian Museum.

The Smithsonian Museum is made up of fourteen museums and galleries, offering 140 million objects of broad appeal. Two of the museums are devoted to science and industry and the others to the arts and history.

Washington does not resemble other big cities of the U.S. It is distinguished by its calmness, stability and prosperity.

 

New York: The Big Apple

    New York is the largest city in the United States, with a population of over 7 million. It is situated in south-eastern New York State at the mouth of the Hudson River. The city consists of five boroughs: Manhattan, Brooklyn, the Bronx, Queens and Staten Island.

The Statue of Liberty meets those who come to New York by sea. It has a torch of freedom in one hand and a tablet welcoming the millions of immigrants who pass by her. The statue was presented to America by France in 1886.

New York is the financial and business centre of the country with Wall Street and the New York Stock Exchange. It is also a city of skyscrapers including the Empire State Building (102 floors), the Rockefeller Trade Centre and the United Nations group (39 floors).

New York is a great cultural centre known as the “Theatre Capital of the World”. Most of the city’s theatres are clustered around Times Square and on Broadway. There is also Carnegie Hall, the New York Philharmonic, the Metropolitan Opera and the New York City Ballet.

    

Philadelphia

City of Brotherly Love

It was here that Thomas Jefferson, John Adams and Benjamin Franklin drafted the Declaration of Independence, and that the Founding Fathers drew up a Constitution for the new nation. Philadelphia is a leading centre of cultural life in the country. Here are situated the Curtis Institute of Music, the richest musical library in the world, and the Philharmonic Society. The people of Philadelphia lovingly Nickname the Society “A century-old-Lady”.

Boston

The Cradle of Liberty

Boston is the “Hub” of America, one of its oldest cities. It has always been the chief U.S. wool market, and now it is the centre of electronics and machinery. It is also the Athens [`жqinz] of America, its cultural birthplace.

Chicago

The Windy City

Chicago is the industrial metropolis of the Midwest, with the busiest airport in the world (O’Hare), the tallest building (the Sears Tower), and the largest grain market and biggest post office building.

Chicago produces more steel, more radios, more TV sets, and more machine tools than any other area in the U.S.

 

Los Angeles

The City of Angels

More than any other city in the United States Los Angeles arouses strong emotional responses. A city that some believe to be paradise, others regard as the last word in horror; a city that some claim to be exciting, dynamic, and romantic, others see as superficial and selfish.

The city has many fine museums and art galleries. Among them are the beautiful J. Paul Getty Museum in Malibu, with its exquisite statues, furniture and paintings, and the George C. Page Museum, which houses the bones of prehistoric animals.

 

The American Political System

The United States of America is a federal republic.

The Constitution, the oldest in the world (1787), sets the basic form of government: three separate branches, each one having power (“checks and balances”) over the others. It specifies the powers and duties of each federal branch of government, with all other powers and duties belonging to the states. The Constitution has been repeatedly amended to meet the changing needs of the nation, but it is still the “supreme law of the land”. All governments and governmental groups, federal, state, and local, must operate within its guidelines.

The federal government of the USA is divided into three branches:

n legislative (the U. S. Congress);

n executive (the President of the U.S.);

n judicial (the U.S. Supreme Court).

 Congress, the legislative branch of the federal government, is made up of the Senate and the House of Representatives. There are 100 Senators, two from each state. One third of the Senators are elected every two years for six-year terms of office. The Senators represent all of the people in a state and their interests.

The House of Representatives has 435 members. They are elected every two years for two-year terms. They represent the population of “congressional districts” into which each state is divided. The number of Representatives from each state is based upon its population.

Almost all elections in the United States follow the “winner-take-all” principle: the candidate who gets the majority of votes wins the seat being contested.  

Congress makes all federal laws, and each house of Congress has the power to introduce legislation. Each can also vote against legislation passed by the other. Because legislation only becomes law if both houses agree, compromise between them is necessary. Congress decides upon taxes and sets the federal budget. In addition, it regulates commerce among the states and with foreign countries. It also regulates the naturalization of foreign citizens.

According to the American Constitution the executive power belongs to the President and his Administration, namely the Cabinet. The President of the United States is elected every four years to a four-year term of office, with no more than two full terms allowed. As is true with Senators and Representatives, the President is elected directly by the voters.

There are certain requirements for a person to become President. The President must be:

n a natural-born citizen;

n at least 35 years old;

n a resident of the United States for at least 14 years.

At a special ceremony called “Inauguration” (which takes place in Washington on January 20 at noon) the President promises to preserve and protect the Constitution.

The U. S. President is advised in Administration by a Vice-President and a Cabinet that consists of 10-12 members.

The third branch of government is the federal judiciary. Its main instrument is the Supreme Court which determines whether or not the laws and acts are in accordance with the Constitution. A decision of the Supreme Court cannot be appealed to any other court. Neither the President nor Congress can change its decisions.

The Constitution provides for three main branches of government which are separate and distinct from one another. The powers given to each are carefully balanced by the powers of the other two. Each branch serves as a check on the others. This is to keep any branch from gaining too much power or from misusing its powers.

The Constitution says nothing about political parties, but over time the U.S. has in fact developed a two-party system. The two leading parties are the Democrats and the Republicans. There are other parties besides these two, among them are the Communist party and several Socialist parties. Minor parties have occasionally won offices at lower levels of government, but they do not play a role in national politics. In fact, one does not need to be a member of political party to run in any election at any level of government. Also, people can simply declare themselves to be members of either of the two major parties when they register to vote in a district.

Americans expect their governments to serve them and tend to think of politicians and governmental officials as their servants. This attitude remains very strong among Americans today.

 

    American Traditions, Customs and Festivals

“America, it may be news to the learned, is a part of the human condition and within its borders there is still a vast variety of interest, amusement, goodness, evil, humor, absurdity, and all the other human attributes.”

(Alistair Cooke)

There at least two generalizations that can be made about Americans. First, Americans tend to be trend-setters in lifestyles. They value their individualism quite highly. They place great emphasis on their individual differences, on having a great number of choices, and on doing things their own way. This is perhaps why general statements about American lifestyles are frequently resented by Americans. Part of being an American is not being, and not wanting to be, typical. Second, what is thought to be typically American today probably won’t be so for long. Since the Second World War, more and more American social and cultural habits have taken hold in Europe, from cornflakes for breakfast to the evening barbecue or grill party. Most interesting, therefore, are those habits and attitudes, customs and conventions which have been consistently observed among Americans over time.

 

The Door Is Always Open

The old tradition of hospitality to strangers is still very strong in the U.S., especially in the smaller cities and towns. “I was just travelling through, got talking with this American, and pretty soon he’s invited me home for dinner - amazing.” Such observations reported by visitors to the U.S., though not uncommon, are not always understood properly. The casual friendliness of many Americans should be interpreted neither as superficial nor as artificial, but as the result of a historically developed cultural tradition. It takes more than a brief encounter on a bus to distinguish between courteous convention and individual interest. Yet, being friendly is a virtue that many Americans value highly and expect from both neighbors and strangers.

Similarly, Americans are also taught to be polite when, as travelers or guests, they are asked that standard question: “How do you like it here?” As children, many were taught that in such situations, “if you can’t find something nice to say, then don’t say anything at all.” Other cultures have other norms of politeness, we try to be honest. Yet when these other norms are applied in America, Americans naturally interpret them through their own (“how rude!”). They are taken as a sign of bad manners.

Howdy, Neighbor

Neighborliness - getting along with your neighbors and helping one another in many small ways - has also been traced to the long period of settlement.

Today, most American neighborhoods still function through a casual yet complex network. Casual coming and going, borrowing and lending, offering and receiving of help among neighbors is typical of most Americans.

   As would be expected, this is more the case in small and medium-sized cities and the suburbs than it is among the inner city, apartment-living population. In the big cities there is more anonymity and privacy, or, seen differently, more isolation and alienation.

There are, then, two sides to this tradition of neighborliness. In a land where people move frequently and freely, they have become adept at making new acquaintances and forming new friendships. However, most American homes are separated from one another by fences, hedges, or, in some parts of the country such as New England or the Southwest, by walls. Even where there are no physical barriers the mental barriers are well-understood and respected. Robert Frost’s poem “Mending Wall” brings out both sides of the American attitude. One neighbor thinks, “Something there is that doesn’t love a wall,” while the other says, “Good fences make good neighbors.”

There is a delicate balance between two views. One is to be friendly to your neighbor. The other is to keep your nose out of his or her business. The line drawn is fine, but like the line that separates one family’s grass from the next, it’s there, even when you can’t see it.

 

Hello, I’m Mary

Americans have always felt more informal in their social and professional lives.

The habit of informality, the ease with which Americans speak to people they’ve only casually met, still surprises foreign visitors. One of the reasons is that the signals in the U.S. for “who is who” are less obvious and, unfortunately, sometimes assumed not to exist.                          

There are generally established and understood rules which parallel this informality. There are topics - income, religion, and politics, for example, that many Americans feel are best avoided in casual conversation. Those who insist upon formal address or titles - in general, those who take themselves too seriously - are sometimes thought to be “phoney” or pretentious. Not surprisingly, such people are often targets for humor.

 

Can’t You Take a Joke?

Like the British, Americans have a love for the intricate practical joke, the pun, and the understated quip. “Kidding around”, or “putting someone on” is part of the daily life of many Americans, and often serves as background to normal conversations. Yet joking around verbally is not just amusing. It is often quite serious, a way of socially testing people, or of making a point. Many Americans find it revealing how people react to kidding at their expense.

 

Home Is Where the Heart Is

The lives of most Americans revolve around their homes. The percentage of Americans owning the house, or apartment, they live in is the highest among western nations. Most Americans still live in “single-family dwellings,” that is, houses which usually have a front and backyard. Contrary to a common belief, only about 5 percent of all Americans live in mobile homes.

Most of America has a more or less four-season climate, and the rhythms of life around the house tend to follow the seasons. Spring means that the storm windows must be taken down in those areas where it gets cold in winter. The screen windows, intended to keep out insects, need to be cleaned or painted and installed. After the winter, the garden needs a lot of work. In summer, the lawn must be mown every week or so. It’s a good time to scrape and paint whatever is wood on the house. The car gets washed every week or so. As soon as autumn’s leaves begin to fall, the storm windows need to be readied and put up again. In winter, the walks and driveways must be kept clear of ice and snow. There is always something that needs to be done around the house, and most American homeowners do it themselves.

Shopping that is the big food shopping, is usually done once a week at the local supermarket. Most Americans, like most people everywhere, are always trying to keep their budgets under control, and always going over. The food will often be paid for by check. Most stores will pack your groceries for you, and many still take them out to your car. The big brown bags traditionally provided can be reused later for a lot of things, from masks for the children to garbage bags and wrapping paper for packages.

In many American families children are expected to help around the house. The “chores” might include vacuuming the carpet, washing and waxing floors, cleaning windows, mowing the lawn, shoveling snow, keeping the car(s) clean, looking after the pets. Some families give a small amount of money, an allowance, to their children in exchange for these and similar chores. Other families simply expect such work to be shared by everyone in the family.

At the same time, many American middle-class families expect their children to find part-time jobs, especially as they enter their teens. This might be working at the local supermarket or service station, mowing lawns, delivering newspapers, or babysitting. In fact, about 75 percent of high school seniors work during the average school week.

In general, Americans feel that young people should appreciate the value of work and learn how to stand on their own two feet.

The common meal of the day is usually eaten in the evening. This varies in time according to family traditions and depending upon each family member’s schedule. It’s usually the only time of the day when everyone is home.

Most Americans today work no more than eight hours a day, five days a week at their jobs.

In the average American home, there is an enormous amount of activity. For the parents, there are perhaps courses at the local evening school or college. There are bridge and bowling clubs and golf leagues. There are public service organizations, lodges, temples, and clubs which sponsor a host of activities, many of them related to charitable work. There are PTA (Parent Teacher Association) meetings.

Many American children take (or are made to take) piano or other music lessons, dancing or ballet lessons, horseback riding, swimming, skiing, golf, tennis, and just about anything else that parents think will be good for their children.

Many adults and teenagers are involved in volunteer work.

Americans often talk about stress. Life is hectic, the pressure is on at work and school. The competition is intense. And working hard, Americans often have schedules that leave little room to just sit and do nothing. Americans also take shorter and fewer holidays and vacations than most people in other industrialized societies (a notable exception being Japan). Still, this emphasis on the stress of American daily life is frequently overdone, often by Americans who sometimes delight in telling others how busy they are.

One feature of American life is the frequent display of flags and other national symbols in the US. The “Star-Spangled Banner” and the flags of the states are found in many places and displayed on many occasions. To Americans, patriotism is largely a natural response to the nation’s history and its ideals.

 

Holidays in the US

 

Each of the 50 states establishes its own legal holidays. The federal government, through the President and Congress, can legally set holidays only for federal employees and for the District of Columbia. Most states, however, accept the federal legal holidays. Holidays for all federal offices, most state and local government offices, and many (but not all!) businesses are:

New Year’s Day (January 1)

Martin Luther King’s Birthday (third Monday in January)

Washington’s Birthday, sometimes called “Presidents’ Day”(third          Monday in February)     

Memorial Day (last Monday in May)

Independence Day (July 4)

Labor Day (first Monday in September)

Columbus Day (second Monday in October)

Veterans’ Day (November 11)

Thanksgiving Day (fourth Thursday in November)

Christmas Day (December 25)

Perhaps the two “most American” of the holidays are the Fourth of July - Independence Day - and Thanksgiving. The Fourth of July is like a big, nationwide birthday party. Yet, it’s a party that takes place in neighborhoods, on beaches or in parks, or on suburban lawns throughout the country. Some towns and cities have parades with bands and flags, and most politicians will try to give a patriotic speech or two, should anyone be willing to listen. But what makes the Fourth of July is the atmosphere and enjoyment of, for instance, the family beach party, with hot dogs and hamburgers, volleyball and softball, the fireworks and rockets at night (and, often, a sunburn and a headache the next morning). The nation’s birthday is also the nation’s greatest annual summer party.

Like Christmas, Thanksgiving is a day for families to come together. Traditional foods are prepared for the feast - turkey or ham, cranberry sauce and corn dishes, breads and rolls, and pumpkin pie. At the same time, Thanksgiving is a solemn occasion, a day to remember the many who are less well off, in America and throughout the world.

The many religious holidays such as Good Friday, Hanukkah, or Ramadan are observed, of course, by the religious, but they have no national or official legal status.

There are many traditional holidays, observed by a large number of Americans, which are not official. Among these are Groundhog Day, Valentine’s Day, St. Patrick’s Day, Mother’s Day, and Halloween.

 

Higher Education in the USA

There is no national system of higher education in the United States. American higher education developed its own pattern by the adaptation of two traditions: the collegiate tradition of England and the university tradition of the continent.

American colleges and universities are either public or private. A public institution is owned and operated by a government, either a state or municipal government. But it does not mean that it is absolutely free. The state colleges or universities charge a fee for tuition or registration. This fee is higher for those who come from outside the state. A private institution receives no direct financial aid from any government, municipal, state or federal. The money used to pay the operating expenses has a threefold origin:

· tuition fees paid by the students;

· money given in the form of gifts;

· the income from invested capital in the possession of the institutions.

Of the nation’s nearly 1,900 institutions of higher learning are state or city institutions. About 1,200 are privately controlled. Approximately 700 of these are controlled by religious groups.

In general, higher education in the USA may be divided into two broad fields: liberal arts (languages, history, science and philosophy) and professional (agriculture, law, engineering, medicine, etc.).

Admission to colleges and universities is by selection the results of SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test). SAT results are not the only items requested by institutions of higher education. Most schools will ask for

* a Personal Data Form;

* a High School Transcript;

* a Standardized Freshman Application Form;

*  teacher’s recommendations;

*  essays on various topics.

The selection for admission is complex. No single factor carries overwhelming weight and the final decision is based on many factors, both academic and non-academic.

The course of studies usually lasts four years for Bachelor’s Degree. Students are classified as freshmen, sophomores, juniors and seniors. A freshman is a first-year student, a sophomore - a second-year student, a junior - a third year student, and a senior - a fourth-year student. A student working for the Bachelor’s Degree (BA or BS) is called an undergraduate; one working for the Master’s (MA or MS) or Doctor of Philosophy Degree (PhD) is called a graduate student. Some students receive scholarships which pay all or part of their tuition. A person on such a fellowship is called a university fellow.

The American academic year usually runs from the middle of August to the beginning of May. If one takes summer classes, it runs until the beginning of July. Most schools divide the academic year into 3 terms or 2 semesters. Achievement is measured by grades which are given on papers and tests during the course of semester and a final examination at the end of the term.

A grade point average (GPA) is determined at the end of term to show student’s overall achievement. Grades are usually on a four-point scale, with letters to indicate the levels of achievement. “A” is the highest mark, the letters go through “B”, “C”, “D”, “F”, the last of which denotes a failure.

Higher educational institutions usually are governed by a board of regents or a board of trustees.

The executive head of a college or university is usually called the president. The various colleges or schools which make up a university are headed by deans. The subject groups within each school are headed by a professor who is designated as department head or chair. Other members of the department hold academic ranks, such as instructor, assistant professor, associate professor, and professor. Graduate students who give some part-time service may be designated as fellows or GAs (Graduate Assistants).

 

THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND

THE BASICS:

Official name: The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern                                                         Ireland (UK)

Status:              a constitutional monarchy

Area:                244,100 square kilometres

Population:      over 60 million people

Capital:            London, over 7, 6 million people

 

The Geography of the UK

 The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland comprises the four countries of England, Scotland (including the Orkney and Shetland Islands), Wales and Northern Ireland. Their capitals are London, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast.

The chief regional administrative units are called “counties” in England and Wales, “regions” in Scotland, and “districts” in Northern Ireland. In addition there are "Dependencies"of the Crown.    

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the official name of the state which is sometimes referred to as Great Britain or Britain (after its major isle), England (after its major historic part) or the British Isles.

Great Britain is situated on the British Isles. The British Isles consist of two large islands, Great Britain (in which are England, Wales and Scotland) and Ireland (in which are Northern Ireland and the independent Irish Republic), and 5,500 smaller islands.

The North Sea, the Strait of Dover (or Pas de Calais), and the English Channel (or La Manche) separate Great Britain from the European continent. The western coast of Great Britain is washed by the Atlantic Ocean and the Irish Sea.

The surface of the British Isles varies very much. It is flat in Eastern England, Scotland and Wales are hilly and mountainous. The main mountain ranges are:

· the Pennines (the backbone of England);

· the Cheviot Hills;

· the Cambrian Mountains (Wales);

· the Highlands of Scotland.

There are sixteen lakes to the north-west of England. This part of the country, called the Lake District, is the most beautiful part of Great Britain.

There are many rivers in Britain. The principal ones are the Severn and the Thames. The Severn is the longest river in Britain while the Thames is the busiest and the most important river in England.

The climate is generally mild and temperate due to the influence of the Gulf Stream. The weather is subject to frequent changes and it is the favourite topic of conversation in Britain.

Great Britain is a highly developed industrial country. It is a great producer of iron and steel, electronics and machinery, chemicals and textiles. It also has a highly developed shipbuilding industry.

Great Britain is not very rich in mineral resources. It imports all of its oil, cotton, rubber and sulphur, four-fifths of its wool and half of its food staffs and iron ore.

Great Britain exports machinery, motor-cars, aircrafts, locomotives, chemicals, woolen and synthetic textiles, radio, TV and navigation equipment.

Britain has a very developed agricultural system. For centuries the country has been famous for its cattle and sheep and still remains a leading producer of wool. Once wool made Britain powerful. The red woolsack on which Lord Chancellor sits symbolizes the power of England.

 

Main Cities of Great Britain

 

London

When we think of Paris, Rome, Madrid, Lisbon and other European capitals, we think of them as “cities”. Modern London is not one city; it is a number of cities, towns, and villages. Today the metropolis of Greater London covers some 610 square miles (1,580 sq. km.) and the suburbs of London continue even beyond this area.

London is situated on both banks of the river Thames, it is the largest city in Britain and one of the largest in the world.

 London dominates the life of Britain. It is a big port and important commercial, manufacturing and cultural centre.

Its most important boroughs are the City, the West End, Westminster, and the East End.

The City of London is an area with a long and exciting history. It is the financial and business centre of the UK with many banks, offices and the Stock Exchange. About half a million people work in the City but only less than 6,000 live here. The City of London is a miniature city within a world-class capital. It has its own cathedral, concert halls and theatres. Two masterpieces are situated within the City: St. Paul’s Cathedral and the Tower of London. St. Paul’s Cathedral was built in the 17^th century by Christopher Wren. The Tower of London has been used as a royal palace, an observatory, an arsenal, a state prison and a fortress. Now it is a museum.

The West End can be called the shopping and entertainment centre of London. It includes Trafalgar Square, Regent Street and Bond Street, and the entertainment centres of Soho, Piccadilly Circus, Leicester Square and Shaftesbury Avenue. The West End is the fashionable quarter of the largest department stores, cinemas and hotels. There are about 40 theatres, several concert halls, many museums including the British Museum, and the best art galleries. Here are the historical palaces as well as the famous parks. Among them are Hyde Park with its Speaker’s Corner, Kensington Gardens and St. James’ Park.

Westminsteris a part of London that has long been connected with

royalty and government. It includes Buckingham Palace, home of the monarch, and the Houses of Parliament with its famous clock-tower, known as Big Ben. Opposite the Houses of Parliament stands Westminster Abbey. It was built in the middle of the 19^th century. Westminster Abbey is the place where coronation of nearly all kings and queens has taken place. Many of them are buried here as well as some other great people. In Poet’s Corner there are monuments to such famous people as Charles Darwin, Isaac Newton, James Watt, William Thackeray, and Charles Dickens. There are also memorials to William Shakespeare, Robert Burns, George Byron, Walter Scott and to the great American poet Longfellow in the cathedral.

The most important ministries and departments of the civil service are in Whitehall, the broad street which leads down to the Houses of Parliament; and off Whitehall at № 10 Downing Street, stands the house where the Prime Minister lives and the Cabinet meets.

The East End is the district of docks and markets. It is especially famous as the centre of the clothing industry. The East End’s markets are famous throughout the world.

London, Britain’s colourful capital, is full of things to see and do, with superb shopping, world-famous sights and a wealth of excellent entertainment and nightlife.

 

Birmingham

At the geographical heart of England is Birmingham, the second largest city of England, and of the principal industrial centres of the British Isles. It is a metal working and an automobile centre. Like most of great cities, Birmingham has a university, many colleges, a famous museum and art gallery.

 

Leeds and Sheffield

 Leeds and Sheffield are industrial cities. Leeds has many industries: modern engineering, furniture. Leeds has three theatres, an art gallery, and two museums.

Sheffield is situated on the Don River. It is known for its cutlery silverware and steel products.

Liverpool

 Liverpool is the birthplace of the Beatles. There is a monument to the famous group in Liverpool. Every year in spring festivals are held there. Liverpool has a lot of docks. Liverpool is a busy port and commerce centre.

 

Manchester

 Manchester is the industrial capital of the North of England. Manchester is the fifth largest port in Great Britain. Its mills and factories produce electronic machines, chemical and plastic materials and other things. Manchester is also an important cultural centre.

 

Cambridge

Cambridge is one of the best-known towns in the world. The principal reason for its fame is its University which started during the 13^th century. Today there are many colleges there. The most famous is Kings, because of its magnificent chapel.

 

Oxford

 Oxford is a town that grew up near the river Thames. Oxford is an international town because people from many parts of the world come to study at its university. The University was established in 1249.

Stratford-upon-Avon

Stratford-upon-Avon is an attractive town famous as the birthplace of William Shakespeare in the 16^th century. In 1599 the famous Globe Theatre was built on the south bank of the river Thames. It was in this theatre that most of his famous plays were performed.

 

Resorts such as Blackpool, Brighton and Bournemouth, have fine sandy beaches, good shopping facilities and an atmosphere of fun and merriment.

 

Edinburgh

Edinburgh is Scotland’s gracious capital city and one of the most beautiful cities in Europe. There are many sights in Edinburgh. One of the most interesting things to see is the famous Edinburgh Castle.

 

Glasgow

Glasgow is the biggest city in Scotland and the third largest in the UK. It is famous for its machinery, textiles, ships and whisky. Glasgow is a very ancient city and there are many places of interest in it. Glasgow is the heart of arts in Scotland and hosts wonderful festivals such as the Mayfest and International Jazz Festival. The word “glasgow” means a fine green region. There are many parks there (about 70), a picture gallery, a museum, and more. There is a University in Glasgow founded in the 15^th century. Glasgow is the sister city of Rostov-on-Don.

 

Cardiff

Cardiff, the capital of Wales, is a modern city with a rich history. Its many attractions include Cardiff Castle, the National Museum of Wales, the outstanding Welsh Folk Museum at St. Fagans, etc. Cardiff is the most important Welsh seaport.

 

The Political System

The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy. This means that it has a monarch (a king or a queen) as its Head of State. The powers of the monarch are not defined precisely. Everything today is done in the Queen’s name. The Queen’s image appears on stamps, notes and coins. It is her government, her armed forces, her law courts and so on. She appoints all the Ministers, including the Prime Minister. Everything is done however on the advice of the elected Government, and the monarch takes no part in the decision-making process. The monarch can only reign with the support of Parliament.

Parliament consists of two chambers - the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Parliament and the monarch have different roles in the government of the country. They only meet together on symbolic occasions such as the coronation of a new monarch or the opening of Parliament. In reality, the House of Commons is the only one of the three which has true power.

The House of Commons is made up of 651 Members of Parliament (MPs), each of whom represents an area of the United Kingdom. They are elected at a general election. The election campaign usually lasts about three weeks.

Everyone over the age of 18 can vote in an election. Parliamentary elections must be held every five years.

  The House of Lords has more than 1,000 members, although only about 250 take an active part in the work of the House. The House consists of hereditary and life peers and peeresses, a certain number of Irish and Scottish peers, the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, bishops and judges. They debate a bill after it has been passed by the House of Commons. A decision is accepted if a quorum of three Lords is present. The House sits, on average, for about 140 days in each session. The Lord Chancellor is chairman and sits on a special seat called the Woolsack. The House of Lords is the only non-elected second chamber among all the democracies in the world, and some people in Great Britain would like to abolish it.

  After each general election the King or Queen invites the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons to become Prime Minister and form the Government. As leaders of their political parties and leaders of the country, Prime Ministers are powerful and important people. They are powerful because they have the majority support in Parliament and they can choose their own ministers and government.

  The PM chooses a committee of ministers called the Cabinet. This is made up of a selection of senior MPs from the House of Commons and some members of the House of Lords.

  The Cabinet meets at the Prime Minister’s house – 10 Downing Street.

  The Cabinet works as a team and all ministers must accept the decisions of the “group”. Cabinet meetings are held in private and the details must remain secret for at least 30 years.   

  The British political scene is dominated by a two-party system: one party in power, the other in opposition. They are the Conservative (1867) and the Labour Parties (1900). The Conservative Party, often called the Tory Party (“tory” means an Irish highwayman), can be broadly described as the party of the middle and upper classes.

  The Labour Party, on the other hand, has always had strong links with the trade unions and receives financial support from them.

  Among the other parties are the Liberal Party (SLD, 1988); the Scottish National Party (1928); Plaid Cymru, the Welsh Nationalist Party, (1925); the Communist Party of Britain (1988); the Communist Party of Great Britain (1920); the National Front and Democratic Left.

 

Customs, Traditions and Festivals of Great Britain

Almost every nation has a reputation of some kind. The French are supposed to be amorous, gay, fond of champagne; the Germans dull, formal, fond of military uniforms and parades; the Americans energetic, dynamic and flexible.

 The British are reputed to be cold, reserved, rather haughty people, who don’t change their governments, or have revolutions, as often as they change their underclothes. They are steady, easy-going, and fond of sports. The English have many traditions, manners and customs, of which they are very proud.

 

“The Englishman’s Home Is His Castle”

Every Englishman is a countryman at heart. About three-quarters of all the dwelling-places in Britain are houses of four to six rooms. A typical house is built on two floors, and has neither cellars nor attics. The front door opens into a hall. Off the hall there are two medium-sized rooms: one is the dining-room; the other may be called the lounge, the drawing-room, the sitting-room or the living-room, according to the choice of the people who live in the house. Upstairs, there are three bedrooms, a bathroom and a lavatory. As for the kitchen it is not a great room. Most of the houses have tiny kitchens in which women find it difficult to do all their work. But the kitchen has probably one advantage - it is the warmest place in the house.

But no matter where the family lives- in a modern flat or in a small cottage - there must be a fireplace in an English home. The fireplace has always been the natural centre of activity in any house.

A typical British family used to consist of mother, father and two children, but in recent years there have been many changes in family life. Some of them have been caused by new laws and others are the result of changes in society. For example, since the law made it easier to get a divorce, the number of divorces has increased. In fact one marriage in every three now ends in divorce. This means that there are a lot of one-parent families.

Members of the family - grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins - keep in touch, but they see less of each other than they used to. Christmas is the traditional season for reunions.

Relationships within the family are different now. Parents treat their children more as equals than they used to, and children have more freedom to make their own decisions.

British meals mean different things at different times to different people.

 

Early morning	Breakfast (an Englishman’s idea of a good breakfast is the following: porridge with milk and sugar, bacon and eggs or fish, hot buttered toast with jam, and a cup of coffee or strong tea with milk. However, many people do not eat anything at breakfast).
Midday (12.00-2.00 p.m.)	Lunch (hotels, restaurants, middle-class homes). Dinner (working class).
Mid-afternoon (4.00-5.00 p.m.)	Afternoon tea (hotels, teashops, middle-class homes).
Evening (5.30-6.30 p.m.)	Tea – main evening meal of working classes, and of some middle-class people.
(7.00-9.00 p.m.)	Dinner- the ordinary evening meal for some middle-class people. Others call it supper.
(9.00-10.00 p.m.)	Supper – light snack (many working and middle class people).

    

Britons drink a quarter of all the tea in the world each year. They are the world’s greatest tea drinkers. Many of them drink it on at least eight different occasions during the day. They drink it between meals and at meals. Some early-morning tea drinkers have automatic tea-making machines connected to their alarm-clocks. You must not refuse tea under the following circumstances: if it is hot; if it is cold; if you are tired; if you are nervous; if

you are happy; before you go out; if you are out; if you have just returned home; if you have had no tea for some time; if you have just had a cup. The English always drink tea out of cups, never out of glasses.

 

Hobbies and Pastimes

 

The most popular hobbies in the home are:

· gardening;

· “Do-it-Yourself”( repairs and remodeling);

· taking care of pets;

· watching television.

 For centuries gardening has been the best-loved hobby of the English, rich and poor, old and young. This is probably one reason why so many people prefer to live in houses rather than flats.

“Do-It-Yourself” is for some people a hobby, for others a necessity.

At least three quarters of the population, elderly women included, do all their own decorations; and a large number of men have learnt to make adequate furniture. The chief reason for this is the high cost of labour for individual services.

 The English have always loved animals. Now the number of pets is rising fast. Once, a foreigner said that his idea of heaven was to be a dog in an English home; if he were to re-visit England today, he would probably say “his idea of the seventh heaven”. There are about four million spoiled dogs in Britain, more than six million cats, and eight or nine million caged birds.

About a third of the people in the country watch television for four or five hours every evening of the week. The BBC calls these people “heavy viewers”. Another third watches TV for between ten and eighteen hours a week, and still another third for less than ten hours. This last third includes the “choosey” people, who select their programmes carefully, and watch only what interests them.

 

The Fish and Chip Shop

A special British institution is the fish and chips shop, where it is possible to buy a piece of fried fish and potatoes. You can eat fish and chips in the street as you walk along, or take it home and eat it on the plate. Snack bars and espresso coffee bars are very popular among people who are too young to go to pubs.

 

What is a Pub?

The words pub or “public house” are rarely included in the title of the place. So, how do you know whether a building is a pub and what a pub offers the visitor?

The first thing to look for is a large sign. This sign may have a name like “The Kings Arms”, “The Black Rabbit” and a related picture on it. Many pubs have names linked to royalty, popular heroes, sports events or great occasions.

On the doors of a pub you may see the words Saloon Bar or Public Bar.

Most pubs sell all kinds of alcohol, from whisky to wine, but the main drink served in pubs is beer, light or dark. Pubs can also offer food and accommodation.

No alcoholic drinks may be served to young people under eighteen, and no children under fourteen are allowed inside the bar.

 

Cards, Hundreds of Cards!

Sending cards is a widespread custom in Britain today. The British have been sending cards since Victorian times when wealthy families started to send Christmas greetings.

 There are cards for every occasion from buying a house to having a baby and, more recently, cards for getting a new job, getting a divorce or just saying “Sorry”. More than 100 million Christmas cards are sold in Britain every year. 

Sports and Games

Many kinds of sport originated in England.

Association football, or soccer is one of the most popular games in the British Isles played from late August until the beginning of May. In summer the English national sport is cricket. When the English say “that’s not cricket” it means “that’s not fair”. Golf is Scotland’s chief contribution to British sport. Other popular kinds of sports are tennis, boxing, wrestling, snooker (billiards), darts, walking, swimming, aerobics, yoga and cycling. There are several places in Britain associated with a particular kind of sport. One of them is Wimbledon - a suburb to the south of London where the All-England Lawn Tennis Championships are held in July. The other one is Wembley - a stadium in north London where international football matches have taken place since 1923. The third one is Derby, the most famous flat race in the English racing calendar.

 

Holidays

 

Official holidays are called “Bank Holidays” because they are the days the banks are closed for business. These holidays are:

· New Year’s Day (January 1^st );

· Good Friday;

· Easter Monday;

· May Day (first Monday in May);

· Spring Bank Holiday (last Monday in May);

· Summer Bank Holiday (last Monday in August);

· Christmas Day (December 25^th);

· Boxing Day (December 26^th).

Scotland and Northern Ireland have several additional festivals of their own. The patron saints days are not celebrated with a holiday. They are:

· St.David’s Day (March 1^st), in Wales;

· St.George’s Day (April 23^rd), in England;

· St.Andrew’s Day (November 30^th), in Scotland.

Only Ireland has a holiday on St.Patrick’s Day (March 17^th). The important festivals are Hallowe’en (October 31^st), Guy Fawkes’ Night (November 5^th), Pancake Day (February), and Remembrance Day (Poppy Day).

 

Higher Education in Great Britain    

 

Nowadays higher education in Great Britain is provided by universities, colleges of education, colleges of arts and colleges of further education.

There are 97 universities in Britain, including the Open University. The oldest and best-known universities are located in Oxford, Cambridge, London, Leeds, Manchester, Liverpool, Edinburgh, Cardiff, Bristol, and Birmingham. Students are carefully selected. The General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCEA) and good A-level results in at least two subjects are necessary to get a place at a university. However, good certificate and exam scores are not enough. Universities choose their students after interviews.

English universities greatly differ from each other. They differ in date of foundation, size, history, tradition, general organization, methods of instruction, and way of student life.

The universities can be roughly divided into three groups:

· the oldest universities (Oxford and Cambridge);

· the redbrick universities (founded between 1850 and 1930, including London University);

· the new universities (founded after World War II).

Oxford (12^th century) and Cambridge (13^th century) are the oldest and most prestigious Universities in Great Britain. They are often called collectively Oxbridge. Both universities are independent. The basis of teaching there is by weekly tutorials. Each student has a tutor who controls and guides his training. Normally a student writes an essay which his tutor criticizes both in writing and in person with the student. Oxford and Cambridge cling to their traditions such as the use of Latin at degree ceremonies. Full academic dress is worn at examinations.

Many great men studied at Cambridge, among them Desiderius Erasmus, the great Dutch scholar, Roger Bacon, the philosopher, Milton, the poet, Oliver Cromwell, the soldier, Newton, the scientist, and Kapitza, the famous Russian physicist.

The general pattern of teaching at other universities remains a mixture of lectures, seminars and tutorials. Each university and department has its own method of assessment, but, in general, progress is measured through a combination of coursework, dissertation and finals (end-of-course examinations).

Other colleges for further education include polytechnics (all have the status of universities), colleges of education, specialist colleges (Agricultural colleges, colleges of Art and Music, etc.), further education colleges.

There is an interesting form of studies which is called the Open University. It is intended for people who study in their own free time and who “attend” lectures by watching television (the BBC) and listening to the radio. They keep in touch by phone and letter with their tutors and attend summer schools. More than 6,000 students, of all ages, get degrees this way every year.

Degree titles vary according to the practice of each university; the most common titles for a first degree are Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BS). Usually they are awarded after four years of study. The second degree titles are Master of Arts (MA) and Master of Science (MS), the highest degree in most fields is the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD).

For all Degrees, Higher National Diploma and Higher National Certificate courses as well as for some Postgraduate Diplomas, student allowances are available from Local Educational Authorities in England and Wales and from the Scottish Office Education Department. The grant can be topped up by a loan from the Student Loan Company.

   Tuition fees are high, especially for overseas students, and they are increased each year in line with inflation.

University life is considered “an experience”; the exams are competitive but the social life and living away from home are also important.

 

PART II

THE FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY

The Faculty of Philosophy is composed of nine departments:

· Department of Dialectics and Methodology;

· Department of the History of Philosophy;

· Department of the Philosophy of Religion;

· Department of the Theory of Culture, Ethics and Aesthetics.

· Department of Theory of Sociology;

· Department of Applied Sociology;

· Department of Political Sociology;

· Department of Political Science

· Department of Social Work.

Philosophy

The subject of philosophy has changed through thousands of years in close connection with the development of all aspects of spiritual life in society along with the development of science and philosophical thought. The term “philosophy” is derived from the two Greek words: phile - loving and sophia - wisdom. Thus, philosophy is love of wisdom.

Philosophy arose at the dawn of civilization in ancient India, China and Egypt, but it first achieved classical form in ancient Greece.

The most ancient form of world outlook which preceded philosophy in history was religion.

The emergence of philosophy coincides with the beginnings of scientific knowledge, with the need for theoretical inquiry. Philosophy was the first historical form of theoretical knowledge. It was based on a theoretical analysis that was in accord with logic and practical experience.

The early Greek thinkers were mainly interested in understanding the origin of the diverse phenomena of nature. Natural philosophy was the first historical thought.

As specialized scientific knowledge was accumulated and thinkers began to develop specific methods of inquiry, a process of differentiation of theoretical and applied knowledge occurred, and mathematics, medicine, astronomy and other disciplines broke away and formed separate branches of knowledge. Greeks were the first to point the way. Among them were Pythagoras, who was the first to use the term of Philosophy, Thales, Zenon, Diogenes, Aristotles, Plato and others.

Philosophy has studied the laws of cognition and, primarily, its highest form - science. According to Plato, knowledge only becomes science when it contains a complete survey of all possible objects within a particular domain and reveals the essential systematic connections between them.

For Aristotle knowledge has an unquestioned Supremacy.

The age of the Renaissance and particularly the 17^th and 18^th centuries accelerated the process of differentiation of scientific knowledge. This progressive division brought about a qualitative change in the role and place of philosophy in the system of knowledge and its relationship to the specialized sciences.

The interrelationships between philosophy and specialized sciences have been extremely complex and contradictory.

The success of the specialized sciences, particularly mathematics and mechanics prompted philosophers to study their methods, so that they could find out whether these methods could be used in philosophy.

The differentiation and specialization of science has demonstrated that there are problems that cannot be solved within the frame of specialized knowledge, that some problems have to be dealt with by philosophy as well as by the sciences. In fact, such problems can be solved only by their joint efforts. There are also some specific philosophical problems that philosophy alone can solve, but even here a solution can be obtained only if philosophy relies on scientific data and advanced social practice.

In conclusion, it should be noted that philosophy is not only a science about the general laws of the development of nature, society and consciousness; it is a way of looking at the world and a dialectical method. Thus, philosophy is a very broad science, and knowledge of philosophy helps one to better understand the world, its laws and ones’ interpersonal relations. Moreover it helps one to penetrate the depths of the human mind.                                                

                                          

Culturology

 

     The Department of Culturology as a special department 0f the Faculty of Philosophy was founded in 1993.

This department provides students with the opportunity to explore a number of subjects sometimes in areas students may not have known about before coming to the university.

  In the curriculum of the department there are a number of fundamental academic subjects such as history of world culture, history of Russian culture, politology, and social psychology that are to form the qualities of a future specialist. These subjects focus on the course of students so that student could graduate with a thorough knowledge of the chosen discipline.

In close relation with the major subjects, the department offers a number of supporting and optional courses. They broaden the students’ mind and, thus, take them well beyond the general introductory level. The curriculum is not limited by narrow specialization. As a result, one can find such additional courses as logic, history of religion, design and the like which offer students a chance to explore the field much better.

All the traditional areas such as comparative culturology or history of culture are covered by the scholars of the department in the lectures and also in their publications.

During the academic year, the students are given lectures and seminars. The curriculum also includes practicals in foreign languages. In the course of study, students acquire command both of English grammar and spoken English. Through the teaching of English, the lessons strive to deepen the students’ knowledge in contemporary culture of the English speaking countries and their national cultural heritage and traditions.

By the end of the academic year, students are to write a project paper on the problem they are interested in. Students’ projects focus on a variety of problems, some of them are interdisciplinary and include topics in philosophy, comparative culture, history of culture, modern literature, social sciences and psychology.

All the students of the department have an opportunity to know their profession through practical experience. This experience can give students valuable assistance in making career choices.

Education at the Culturology Department provides students with the opportunities to explore the subject of culture as deeply and effectively as possible. This training may lead to a number of careers in different cultural institutions, businesses or to future research as postgraduates.

Sociology

                                     

The name sociology was first suggested in the 1830s by the French philosopher Auguste Comte, but for many years it remained only a suggestion. Comte urged others to study sociology.

It was not until late in the 19^th century that we can identify people who called themselves sociologists and whose work contributed to the development of the field. Among these were Herbert Spencer in England who published the first of his three-volume “Principles of Sociology” in 1876 and Ferdinand Tnnies in Germany. A decade later, Emile Durkheim published “Suicide.” The first sociologists studied moral statistics. Their work proved so popular that it led to the rapid expansion of census questions. However, sociology as an academic speciality was imported from Germany. The progressive uncovering of social causes of individual behaviour - in response to the questions raised by moral statistics - produced the field called sociology.

Sociology is one of the related fields known as the social sciences. They share the same subject matter: human behaviour. But sociology is the study of social relations, and its primary subject matter is the group, not the individual.

There is a close connection between sociology and other disciplines such as psychology, economy, anthropology, criminology, political science, and history. But sociologists differ from psychologists because they are not concerned exclusively with the individual, they are interested in what goes on between people. They differ from economists by being less interested in commercial exchanges; they are interested in the exchange of intangibles such as love and affection. Sociologists differ from anthropologists primarily because the latter specialize in the study of preliterate and primitive human groups, while sociologists are interested in modern industrial societies. Criminologists specialize in illegal behaviour, while sociologists are concerned with the whole range of human behaviour. Similarly, political scientists focus on political organization and activity, while sociologists survey all social organizations. Finally, sociologists share with historians an interest in the past but are equally interested in the present and the future.

Sociology is a broader discipline than the other social sciences. In a sense, the purpose of sociologists is, in general, to find the connections that unite various social sciences into a comprehensive, integrated science of society.

Sociology consists of two major fields of knowledge: micro sociology and macro sociology. Micro sociologists study the patterns and processes of face-to-face interaction between humans. Macro sociologists attempt to explain the fundamental patterns and processes of large-scale social relations. They concentrate on larger groups, even on whole societies.

Sociologists attempt to use research to discover if certain statements about social life are correct. The basic tools of their research are tests, questionaires, interviews, surveys, and public opinion polls.

 

Defining Politics

Politics, in its broadest sense, is the activity through which people make, preserve and amend the general rules under which they live. Politics is also an academic subject, or more exactly, the study of this activity.

Any attempt to clarify the meaning of “politics” must address two major problems. The first is the mass of associations that the word has when used in everyday language, in other words, politics is a “loaded” term. The second is that even respected authorities cannot agree what the subject is about. Politics is defined in such different ways: as the exercise of power, the exercise of authority, the making of collective decisions, the allocation of scarce resources, the practice of deception and manipulation, and so on.

Whether we are dealing with rival concepts or alternative conceptions, the debate about “What is politics?” is worth pursuing because it exposes some of the deepest intellectual and ideological disagreements in the academic study of the subject. The different views of politics are as follows:

· politics as the art of government;

· politics as public affairs;

· politics as compromise and consensus;

· politics as power and the distribution of resources.

According to chancellor Bismarck “politics is not a science but an art.” Bismarck understood the art as the art of government. This is the classical definition of politics developed from the original meaning of the term in Ancient Greece. However, what is striking about this definition is that it offers a highly restricted view of politics. Politics is what takes place within a system of social organization centred upon the machinery of government, that is in cabinet rooms, legislative chambers, government departments and the like; it is practiced by a limited and specific group of people: politicians, civil servants, and lobbists. On the one hand, it means that most people, most institutions and social activities can be regarded as being “outside” politics. By the same token, to portray politics as an essentially state-bounded activity is to ignore the increasingly important international or global influences upon modern life. On the other hand, in popular mind politics is closely associated with the activities of politicians. Politics is considered as a self-serving, two faced and unprincipal activity. The task is not to abolish politicians and bring politics to an end, but rather to ensure that politics is conducted within a framework of checks and constraints so that governmental power is not abused.

A second and broader conception of politics is thought of as “public life” or “public affairs.” Such a view of politics is often traced back to the work of the famous Greek philosopher Aristotle. This view of politics has generated both positive and negative images. For example, it is portrayed as a form of unwanted inteference.

The third conception of politics is related to the way in which decisions are made. Politics is seen as a particular means of resolving conflicts by compromise, conciliation and negotiation, rather than through force and naked power. In this view, the key to politics is therefore a wide dispersal of power. This view of politics has a positive character. Politics can be seen as a civilized and civilizing force.

The fourth definition of politics as power is both the broadest and the most radical. At its broadest, politics concerns the production, distribution and use of resources in the course of social existence. Politics is, in essence, power: the ability to achieve a desired outcome through whatever means. Politics can be seen as a struggle, and power can be seen as the means through which the struggle is conducted. Advocates of this view of power include feminists and marxists. Views such as these portray politics in largely negative terms.

Disagreement about the nature of political activity is matched by controversy about the nature of politics as an academic discipline. One of the most ancient spheres of intellectual inquiry, politics was seen as an arm of philosophy, history or law. From the late 19^th century onwards, this philosophical emphasis was displaced by an attempt to turn politics into a scientific discipline. The high point of this development was reached in the 1950s and 1960s. Today, the resulting discipline is more fertile and more exciting, because it embraces a range of theoretical approaches and variety of schools and analysis.

 

Social Work

     What makes a good social worker? Many things. Paramount in the make-up of a social worker is a deep and genuine interest in good people, bad people, famous people, humble people, rich people, poor people, young people and all people. People of every type.

   A person, who doesn’t have this interest in other people will never make a good social worker. If you are not interested in other people, if you think that most people are a bit of a nuisance, if you prefer not to have anything more to do with others than is necessary, then social work is not for you.

   Hand in hand with this interest in people should go the qualities of sympathy, open-mindedness and an inquiring mind. These traits allow you to get to the bottom of the problem you are trying to resolve. The social worker spends most of his time talking or listening to other people. These are the basic qualities for a social worker, but the required qualifications are very different.

Obviously he must be well educated. He must be a real psychologist who understands the inner world, mental state and feelings of a person.

Nowadays, social work is at an important stage in its development. All professions must be responsible for changing social and economic conditions. Social workers can make contribution to the well-being of our society. In fact, every social worker is in a position to solve a variety of problems: Children at risk, violent families, or even the seriously handicapped.

Family therapy has proved to be a creative method of problem solving for social workers. In family therapy, attention should be paid to single parent families, step families and foster families. That’s why social workers are required, more often than other professionals, to help families who are in different stages of fragmentation.

Sources of knowledge for such work are derived both from clinical experience and clinical literature. They are also evolved from a close familiarity with family studies which helps to develop the professional eye so as to be able to know which families are most vulnerable.

  The main methods of a social worker are: interviews, inquiries and surveys. These methods enable the worker to understand the needs of a particular family more sensitively and accurately. Understanding enables introduction of appropriae and novel tools for helping the family evolve a satisfying pattern of group life.

How can the social worker learn to help a family discover their own resources? By being in a position where the social worker can ask questions that only the outsider can ask. A high proportion of first interviews takes place within the family’s own home. There may also be an agency interview. In the first case preliminary courtesies are part of therapeutic work.

There can be variations on handing of family interviews. Here are some of them:

· We like to see all the members of the family.

· Fathers as heads of the family are very important in all kinds of interviews.

· In families everybody has a point of view and these are not always the same. In our experience it is very important to hear what everybody has to say.

· We often find other people in the family have ideas about how to deal with the trouble that’s going on. A chance to talk about it together produces a much better plan for changing the situation in the family for the better.

THE FACULTY OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology as a science studies mental activity and human behaviour. Psychologists study basic functions such as learning, memory, language, thinking, emotions and motives. They investigate development throughout the life span from birth to death. They are involved in mental and physical health care. Also phsychologists treat people who are emotionally distressed.

Psychology occupies a strategic position between natural and social sciences on the one hand, and between sciences and humanities, on the other.

Diagram

The following diagram illustrates the place of psychology among the sciences and humanities

 

1. Natural Sciences Physics Chemistry Pharmacology Mathematics   II. Social Sciences Anthropology Sociology Economics Political Science Linguistics

Zoology   Neurophysiology and Anatomy     Psychology

III. Humanities Philosophy Literature History of Art Religion   IV. Applications Education Law and Criminology Management Medicine Psychiatry

 

Each of the subjects listed in the four groups has its own relationship with psychology. For example, a knowledge of physics and chemistry is necessary to provide a scientific basis for experimental psychology. Psychology is also closely linked to sociology. But whereas sociologists direct their attention to groups, group processes, and social forces, social psychologists focus on group and social influences on individuals. Psychology and biology are also closely connected. Physiological psychologists investigate the role of the brain and the nervous system in such functions as memory, language, sleep, attention, movement, perception, hunger, anger and joy. On the other hand, psychologists took much from the theory of knowledge, logic and philosophy of science..

The word “psychology” is derived from the Greek word meaning “study of the mind or soul.” So in the definition of psychology there are three basic words: “science,” “behaviour,” “mental processes.”

“Science” means rational investigation of processes and phenomena. By “behaviour” psychologists mean everything that people and animals do: actions, emotions, ways of communication, and developmental processes. “Mental processes” characterize the work of the mind and the nervous system.

Major Spesialists in Psychology

 

SPECIALIST	PRIMARY ACTIVITIES
Clinical psychologist	Assesses and treats people with psychological Problems; conducts research
Counseling psychologist	Counsels people with adjustment problems and promotes achievement in educational and work settings; combines research, consultation and treatment
Industrial        (organizational)    psychologist	Combines research, consultation, and program development to enhance morale and efficiency on the job
Educational psychologist	Develops, designs and evaluates materials and procedures for educational programs
Social psychologist	Studies how people influence one another
Developmental psychologist	Studies change in behaviour with age
Experimental psychologist	Conducts research
School psychologist	Establishes programs, consults, treats youngsters’ problems, and does research in the school setting
Cognitive psychologist	Studies mental processes
Community psychologist	Treats distressed people within the community; initiates community action and develops community programs to enhance mental health
Engineering psychologist	Designs and evaluates environments, machinery, training devices, programs, and systems to improve relationships between people and environment
Personality psychologist	Studies how and why people differ from one another and how those differences can be assessed
Physiological psychologist	Studies the physical bases of behaviour and cognition
Psychometric (quantitative) psychologist	Develops and evaluates tests; designs research to measure psychological functions

 

 

THE FACULTY OF HISTORY

 

Rostov State University’s Faculty of History offers a wide variety of courses and majors in the humanities. Originally, the History Department was included in the Philology Department. Now, the two departments are separate and the History Department ranks among the largest in the University.

Since its inception, the History Department has been one of the most active and respected faculties in the University. The Department’s first Chairperson was a world famous historian, Professor Pokrovsky. The department has produced many outstanding innovators, researchers and teachers of historical science. Current enrolment in the department is 75 students with an additional 15 students studying on commercial terms.

The department provides the following specialties: world history, history of social movements and political parties, archaeology and regional studies.

The curriculum consists of the following areas of study:

1. Subjects within the major: the history of primitive society, ancient history, the history of the middle ages, modern and contemporary history, local history, historiography, resource studies, the science of bibliography, the history of native cultures, the history of world religion and the history of the Russian Orthodox Church.

2.  Subjects in the humanities and socio-economic disciplines: philosophy, educational methodology, sociology, politics, and economics.

3.  Subjects in the natural sciences: computer technology, environmental planning studies and so forth.

The History Department is broken up into seven sub-departments:

· the Department of Russian History of Feudalism and Special Historical Disciplines;

· the Department of 19^th and Early 20^th Century Russian History;

· the Department of Contemporary Russian History;

· the Department of Social Movements and History of Political Parties in Russia;

· the Department of Ancient and Medieval History;

· the Department of Modern and Contemporary History;

· the Department of Political History.

Three of these have a common research area; Russian History. This field deals with a broad range of topics including the history of the Don River region and the people of the Northern Caucasus which track the history of this rich region from the time of feudal lords to modern times.                The Department of Ancient and Medieval History devotes itself to 

the study of the spiritual and economical culture of the Don region during the Middle Ages concentrating on the link between the people of this region and the social and political development of Western Europe.

 The Department of Modern and Contemporary History is concerned with the social and political history of modern Europe, North America, Asia and Africa.

The professors and instructors of these departments rank among the leading experts in historical research. Recently, the historical sciences have experienced an exciting phase of development. New approaches, new techniques and new areas of interest have allowed many documents and artifacts to be reinterpreted. This has made history a more appealing subject to study.

Graduates of Rostov State University’s History Department are sought by a wide range of employers. After finishing their course work and graduating, students often become civil servants, politicians, librarians, museum curators, archive managers, tour guides or business people. Young specialists also work as teachers in secondary schools and universities.

 

THE FACULTY OF LAW

 

Rostov State University divides its law training into two parts: the first three years are devoted to basic education of a rather general and fundamental nature, and the last two years to specific research work, together with the preparation of a diploma paper. The Faculty of Law tries, moreover, to give its students a civic and social formation which will enable them to be aware of the problems facing the society and have a wish to solve them.

Law is a system of norms, binding the community as a whole, which are prescribed by the state. Law protects and directs the actions of all people equally. The sphere in which law operates is quite extensive and so the study of law embraces various legal branches. For example, State Law and Administrative Law fix the norms of administration and the constitutional system. They determine the legal status of citizens and the activity of the state mechanism. Civil Law and Labour Law fix existing property relations and regulate the distribution of labour and its products between the members of the society. Criminal Law lays down the measures for combating encroachment on the state system and the existing order of social relations. There exist some other branches of law regulating social relationships and dealing with economic, political and cultural development of the state. It is quite natural that Russia needs a lot of law specialists to ensure the proper performance of legal work in all theses spheres.

The Faculty of Law at Rostov State University trains highly qualified lawyers for the needs of state administration and the national economy. It is composed of nine departments:

·   the Department of Theory and History State and Law;

· the Department of International and State Law;

· the Department of Civil Law;

· the Department of Civil Procedure;

· the Department of Criminal Law and Criminology;

· the Department of Municipal Law;

· the Department of the Foundations of State and Law;

· the Department of Economic Law.

In the senior years, students specialize in legal studies. They are provided with special courses, thus, considerable deepening their knowledge for their future work in accordance with the chosen specialization.

Senior students are engaged in practical training at various state bodies. For example, they work as investigators in the Prosecurator’s Office. They are present during the examination of witnesses. They also attend the presentation of the indictment against the accused, when the accused is being presented with the ruling on his crime and is handed his punishment. They are required to investigate actions on their own: they have to read the experts’ findings and give their opinion on the validity of these findings. Sometimes they are asked to prepare questions to be put to witnesses during the trial. They take part in the search for evidence. Instructors also require students to describe some details of the crime under investigation.

Graduates can work in various state and private bodies such as:

· the Court and Prosecurator’s Office;

·  the organs of internal affairs;

·  the legal departments of industrial, supplies-sale and trade organizations;

·  the Bar Association;

· military tribunals and the military Prosecurator’s Office.

In no country, regardless of its political or economic system, has the problem of crime been solved, nevertheless people and their governments continue to search for ways to create a safe and more just society. One thing is certain, whatever is done to try to decrease criminal activity, it will be done within the strict rules provided by the Constitution and watched over carefully by the system of courts.

 

THE FACULTY OF ECONOMICS

The history of the Economics Faculty dates back to 1965, when the Faculty of Economics and Philosophy was founded. In 1970 it was split into two independent faculties: the Economics Faculty and the Philosophy Faculty.     

Training is provided in the following specializations:

· theory of economics;

· mathematical methods and operations research in economics;

· management.

There are seven departments:

· Department of Political Economy and Economic Policy: The Russian market economy;

· Department of Market Theory: Transition of Russian economy to a market economy;

· Department of the Theory of Economics: Reforming the Russian Economy;

· Department of Economic Cybernetics: Analysis of the tax system in Russia and ways for its improvement;

· Department of Economics and Management: Management of science and education;

· Department of Economics and Entrepreneurship: Economic methods of management and the system of free enterprise.

· Department of History of Economic Theory: History of economics and national models of economy.

 Post-graduate courses are available in the five areas:

n political economy;

n regional economy:

n economy, organization, management and planning of the national economy;

n mathematical methods and operations research in economics;

n economy of natural resourses and environment protection.

The teaching staff includes 14 Doctors of Science and 55 Candidates of Science. More than 6,000 specialists have been trained since the foundation of the Faculty.

 

Economic Theory

Economic theory, usually referred to as simply “Economics”, is a social science concerned with the analysis of commercial activities, with how goods and services are produced, and how they are distributed. It is the study of how societies use scarce resources to produce valuable commodities and distribute them among different people. The scope of economics is indicated by the facts with which it deals. These consist mainly of data on output, income, employment, expenditure, interest rates and related magnitudes associated with activities of production, consumption, transportation and trade. 

Owing to the complexity of modern society, economics has been subdivided into several specialized areas, such as macroeconomics, microeconomics, consumer economics, labour economics, international economics, banking and finance, econometrics and others.

 Macroeconomics is that part of economics which examines a complete economic system rather than individual sectors. It uses agregate data for large groups of persons or products, such as gross national product, national income, total employment or money supply. This field looks at the relationships between these important economic indicators and attempts to explain the changes that have taken place over a long-term period. With this information available to them, economists are then able to make predictions about what will happen if certain economic decisions are taken.

A microeconomic study is different. It looks at an individual sector of the economy and the influences on it. It analyses a particular market in terms of a product, firm, industry or individual, such as the demand for automobiles, or employment for dock workers, or average household income. A key objective of a microeconomic study is to find out how the decisions and activities of the consumers, companies or other units being examined, affect the prices of particular goods or services. Because of its emphasis on price in the market system, microeconomics is also known as price theory. Microeconomics focuses on identifying various outcomes which result from the distribution of resources and, in turn, considers such variables as supply and demand.

One of the major sources of economic theory comes from observing economic affairs. History and facts are central to an empirical science like economic theory, but to these we must add economic analysis, for only by developing and testing economic theories can we organize the jumble of data and facts into a coherent view of reality. Economic analysis is an approach that starts with a set of assumptions and then deduces logically certain predictions about the economic behaviour of people, firms, or the overall economy. A complete understanding of economic activity relies upon the use of economic data and statistical analysis. Economists are turning also to laboratory and other controlled experiments to study economic phenomena. These four techniques - observation, economic analysis, statistical analysis and experiments - form the approach by which economic science progresses.

Economic theory provides the basis for other economic sciences, such as applied economic science in national economic planning, finance and various sectional economic sciences. Economic theory is also the methodological basis for sciences like the history of economics, international economic relations and the economics of developing countries. It is closely bound up with a new economic discipline known as economic policy.

Economic theory improves knowledge of crucial national issues. It plays two distinct roles in promoting the analysis of national economic issues. It first helps to understand our society - to describe, explain and predict economic behaviour, for example, the causes of poverty. But for many people the pay off comes when economic knowledge is applied to help design policies that will build a better society. This distinction between description and prescription is central to modern economics.

Economists have, in recent years, become the counsellors of presidents and prime ministers. Any political agenda is full of economic issues: should we raise taxes to curb the budget deficit? Should the minimum wage be raised? Should the government regulate banks more closely? Political leaders need economic advisers to help them understand these complex questions.

Increasingly, international aspects of economic activity concern policymakers. Heads of governments must constantly make vital decisions that involve economics. National leaders should have advisers who were schooled in the major economic issues and can propose solutions to the problems of the day.

 

Management

 

The speciality called “Economics and Management” has a wide horizon of applications because a manager is one of the key figures in every organization.

 An organization consists of two or more people deliberately working together to attain a set of goals (for example, to produce goods and services). Any large organization will have managers, employees who set the goals for the organization and devise a plan to reach these goals.

Managers make up a social class which has become very important in the second half of the 20^th century. There’s simple explanation to this statement. There are some huge corporations that possess such enormous financial, production and scientific potential that they may be compared with countries. That’s why the decisions of their managers may affect lives of millions of people, or even whole economic regions.

Management is the process of achieving organizational goals through engaging in the four main functions of planning, organizing, motivating and controlling. All these functions are necessary to reach the organizational goals.

There are four main types of management as a form of activity in directing people: production, marketing, finance and innovation. Some people add information management and personnel management into the group.

The term “management” can also refer to a field of study. As a science it has its own subject, object, internal and external laws and a short, though very rich, history.

Management, as a scientific and organizational phenomenon, came into being in 1911 after the issuing of Frederich Taylor’s book “Principles of Scientific Management.” In it, Taylor expressed the idea that the most important thing one should do in any organization is to set up a system of special people called organizers or managers. This idea was received by some other scientists and businessmen.

In 1926, the Rockfeller Fund (at Harvard University) started researching the problems of organization or management. The world famous company of that time, “Western Electric Co.” spent lots of money on the research in that field.

Various famous specialists and scientists continued working or exploring

managerial problems and their application in practice. Those were: Henry Ford, Peter Drake, James Mooney, Alan Keiley and others.

The period of the fastest development in the managerial science covered the 1950s and 60s. A lot of interesting and highly useful methods were transferred from military sciences into the civilian production of goods and services.

The following are the most important principles of managerial science in the 90s:

· A return to the ideas of the technological and material component of production.

· The development of democratic power and general decentralization.

· The increase of the international aspect of management.

 

Mathematical Methods and Operations

Research in Economics

The speciality “Mathematical methods and operations research in economics” is a new, more advanced variant of the speciality “Economic cybernetics.”

Cybernetics is quite a young science. The term “cybernetics” originated from the Greek “Kybernetike,” the Latin “gubernator” and the English “governor,” all meaning “control.” The term, cybernetics, was first introduced by the American mathematician Norbert Wiener who is considered the father of the science.Cybernetics is the science dealing with the problem of control and governing of processes. The main aim of this science is increasing the efficiency of human labour, and controlling and governing of processes in nature, technology and human society.

Cybernetics comprises three principal branches: theoretical, technical and applied. All branches are independent scientific trends. The theoretical branch deals with the philosophical mathematical and logical foundations. The technicalbranch refers to the technical means used in control mechanism. The appliedbranch is connected with the application of the theoretical findings in various fields of science and human activity. Extensive usage of theoretical and technical branches of cybernetics gave rise to the appearance of new science - applied cybernetics.

Economic cybernetics is one of the applied branches of cybernetics. Economic cybernetics is a branch of science dealing with the application of cybernetical methods and ideas to economic systems. Economic cybernetics holds an intermediate position between economics and mathematics. Structurally economic cybernetics comprises two main divisions: theoretical and technical.

As the result of some significant changes in the socio-economic sphere, as well as the development of economic and mathematical methods and information technologies was the appearance of the new speciality - mathematical methods and operational research in economics. It is a universal speciality requiring mathematical, humanitarian, and economic knowledge. Graduates receive the qualification of an economist-mathematician.

The students of the Department of mathematical methods and operational research in economics study various subjects. The established curriculum includes such mathematical disciplines as mathematical analysis, linear algebra, the theory of probability and mathematical statistics, basics of algorithmization and programming languages, and operational research. The students are also given lectures on some economic subjects (for instance, issues of micro- and macroeconomics) and special disciplines like economic-mathematical models, information technologies, cybernetic basis of management. The study of Information Technologies includes the following disciplines: computer architecture and operating system basis, database, programming technology, personal computers in financial and commersial calculations, modern information technologies, and the use of personal computers for accounting.

During the course of study, both junior and senior students take part in business and role plays in such courses as social processes modeling, optimal management of the elementary economic systems, the theory of decision-making and computer practical work.

The students of economics also study fundamentals of philosophy, history and foreign languages. 

In addition to this, students have practical training in programming languages, computer application in the economy, mathematical methods and modeling in economics. Juniors carry out their practicum in the computer class, seniors - in banks, insurance companies, taxation and customs bodies, state administration bodies or local small and medium sized business.

After graduating from the University a wide range of activities is open to the graduates of the Department of mathematical methods and operational research in economics. They have the knowledge to work in various governmental institutions, state research and design organizations, in private firms and state enterprises, banks and finance companies, consulting firms and investment funds.

They will be able to carry out different kinds of economic activities such as analysis, forecasting and planning while conducting calculations and analytical operations using modern information technologies and computer software.

At present, the study of mathematical methods and operational research in economics is in great demand by our students who will work in the new market economy conditions.

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