L ecture 4: GRAMMATICAL MEANING.
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES.
(СРС, СРСП)
1. The notion of ‘grammatical meaning’.
The word combines in its semantic structure two meanings – lexical and grammatical. Lexical meaning is the individual meaning of the word (e.g. table). Grammatical meaning is the meaning of the whole class or a subclass. For example, the class of nouns has the grammatical meaning of thingness. If we take a noun (table) we may say that it possesses its individual lexical meaning (it corresponds to a definite piece of furniture) and the grammatical meaning of thingness (this is the meaning of the whole class). Besides, the noun ‘table’ has the grammatical meaning of a subclass – countableness. Any verb combines its individual lexical meaning with the grammatical meaning of verbiality – the ability to denote actions or states. An adjective combines its individual lexical meaning with the grammatical meaning of the whole class of adjectives – qualitativeness – the ability to denote qualities. Adverbs possess the grammatical meaning of adverbiality – the ability to denote quality of qualities.
There are some classes of words that are devoid of any lexical meaning and possess the grammatical meaning only. This can be explained by the fact that they have no referents in the objective reality. All function words belong to this group – articles, particles, prepositions, etc.
2. Types of grammatical meaning.
The grammatical meaning may be explicit and implicit. The implicit grammatical meaning is not expressed formally (e.g. the word table does not contain any hints in its form as to it being inanimate). The explicit grammatical meaning is always marked morphologically – it has its marker. In the word cats the grammatical meaning of plurality is shown in the form of the noun; cat’s – here the grammatical meaning of possessiveness is shown by the form ‘s; is asked – shows the explicit grammatical meaning of passiveness.
The implicit grammatical meaning may be of two types – general and dependent. The general grammatical meaning is the meaning of the whole word-class, of a part of speech (e.g. nouns – the general grammatical meaning of thingness). The dependent grammatical meaning is the meaning of a subclass within the same part of speech. For instance, any verb possesses the dependent grammatical meaning of transitivity/intransitivity, terminativeness/non-terminativeness, stativeness/non-stativeness; nouns have the dependent grammatical meaning of contableness/uncountableness and animateness/inanimateness. The most important thing about the dependent grammatical meaning is that it influences the realization of grammatical categories restricting them to a subclass. Thus the dependent grammatical meaning of countableness/uncountableness influences the realization of the grammatical category of number as the number category is realized only within the subclass of countable nouns, the grammatical meaning of animateness/inanimateness influences the realization of the grammatical category of case, teminativeness/non-terminativeness - the category of tense, transitivity/intransitivity – the category of voice.
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GRAMMATICAL MEANING
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EXPLICIT IMPLICIT
GENERAL DEPENDENT
3. Grammatical categories.
Grammatical categories are made up by the unity of identical grammatical meanings that have the same form (e.g. singular::plural). Due to dialectal unity of language and thought, grammatical categories correlate, on the one hand, with the conceptual categories and, on the other hand, with the objective reality. It may be shown with the help of a triangle model:
Conceptual reality Conceptual category
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Objective reality Lingual reality Objective category Grammatical category
It follows that we may define grammatical categories as references of the corresponding objective categories. For example, the objective category of time finds its representation in the grammatical category of tense, the objective category of quantity finds its representation in the grammatical category of number. Those grammatical categories that have references in the objective reality are called referential grammatical categories. However, not all of the grammatical categories have references in the objective reality, just a few of them do not correspond to anything in the objective reality. Such categories correlate only with conceptual matters:
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Conceptual correlate
Lingual correlate
They are called significational categories. To this type belong the categories of mood and degree. Speaking about the grammatical category of mood we can say that it has modality as its conceptual correlate. It can be explained by the fact that it does not refer to anything in the objective reality – it expresses the speaker’s attitude to what he says.
4. The notion of opposition.
Any grammatical category must be represented by at least two grammatical forms (e.g. the grammatical category of number – singular and plural forms). The relation between two grammatical forms differing in meaning and external signs is called opposition – book::books (unmarked member/marked member). All grammatical categories find their realization through oppositions, e.g. the grammatical category of number is realized through the opposition singular::plural.
Taking all the above mentioned into consideration, we may define the grammatical category as the opposition between two mutually exclusive form-classes (a form-class is a set of words with the same explicit grammatical meaning).
Means of realization of grammatical categories may be synthetic (near – nearer) and analytic (beautiful – more beautiful).
5. Transposition and neutralization of morphological forms.
In the process of communication grammatical categories may undergo the processes of transposition and neutralization.
Transposition is the use of a linguistic unit in an unusual environment or in the function that is not characteristic of it (He is a lion). In the sentence He is coming tomorrow the paradigmatic meaning of the continuous form is reduced and a new meaning appears – that of a future action. Transposition always results in the neutralization of a paradigmatic meaning. Neutralization is the reduction of the opposition to one of its members : custom :: customs – x :: customs; x :: spectacles.
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Lecture 3: THE NOUN
1.General characteristics.
The noun is the central lexical unit of language. It is the main nominative unit of speech. As any other part of speech, the noun can be characterised by three criteria: semantic (the meaning), morphological (the form and grammatical categories) and syntactical (functions, distribution).
Semantic features of the noun. The noun possesses the grammatical meaning of thingness, substantiality. According to different principles of classification nouns fall into several subclasses:
1. According to the type of nomination they may be proper and common;
2. According to the form of existence they may be animate and inanimate. Animate nouns in their turn fall into human and non-human.
3. According to their quantitative structure nouns can be countable and uncountable.
This set of subclasses cannot be put together into one table because of the different principles of classification.
Morphological features of the noun. In accordance with the morphological structure of the stems all nouns can be classified into: simple,derived (stem + affix, affix + stem – thingness); compound (stem+ stem – armchair) and composite (the Hague). The noun has morphological categories of number and case. Some scholars admit the existence of the category of gender.
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Syntactic features of the noun. The noun can be used in the sentence in all syntacticfunctions but predicate. Speaking about noun combinability, we can say that it can go into right-hand and left-hand connections with practically all parts of speech. That is why practically all parts of speech but the verb can act as noun determiners. However, the most common noun determiners are considered to be articles, pronouns, numerals, adjectives and nouns themselves in the common and genitive case.
2. The category of number
The grammatical category of number is the linguistic representation of the objective category of quantity. The number category is realized through the opposition of two form-classes: the plural form :: the singular form. The category of number in English is restricted in its realization because of the dependent implicit grammatical meaning of countableness/uncountableness. The number category is realized only within subclass of countable nouns.
The grammatical meaning of number may not coincide with the notional quantity: the noun in the singular does not necessarily denote one object while the plural form may be used to denote one object consisting of several parts. The singular form may denote:
a) oneness (individual separate object – a cat);
b) generalization (the meaning of the whole class – The cat is a domestic animal);
c) indiscreteness (нерасчлененность or uncountableness - money, milk).
The plural form may denote:
a) the existence of several objects (cats);
b) the inner discreteness (внутренняя расчлененность, pluralia tantum, jeans).
To sum it up, all nouns may be subdivided into three groups:
1. The nouns in which the opposition of explicit discreteness/indiscreteness is expressed : cat::cats;
2. The nouns in which this opposition is not expressed explicitly but is revealed by syntactical and lexical correlation in the context. There are two groups here:
A. Singularia tantum. It covers different groups of nouns: proper names, abstract nouns, material nouns, collective nouns;
B. Pluralia tantum. It covers the names of objects consisting of several parts (jeans), names of sciences (mathematics), names of diseases, games, etc.
3. The nouns with homogenous number forms. The number opposition here is not expressed formally but is revealed only lexically and syntactically in the context: e.g. Look! A sheep is eating grass. Look! The sheep are eating grass.
3. The category of case.
Case expresses the relation of a word to another word in the word-group or sentence (my sister’s coat). The category of case correlates with the objective category of possession. The case category in English is realized through the opposition: The Common Case :: The Possessive Case (sister :: sister’s). However, in modern linguistics the term “genitive case” is used instead of the “possessive case” because the meanings rendered by the “`s” sign are not only those of possession. The scope of meanings rendered by the Genitive Case is the following :
a) Possessive Genitive : Mary’s father – Mary has a father,
b) Subjective Genitive: The doctor’s arrival – The doctor has arrived,
c) Objective Genitive : The man’s release – The man was released,
d) Adverbial Genitive : Two hour’s work – X worked for two hours,
e) Equation Genitive : a mile’s distance – the distance is a mile,
f) Genitive of destination: children’s books – books for children,
g) 
Mixed Group: yesterday’s paper
Nick’s school cannot be reduced to one nucleus
John’s word
To avoid confusion with the plural, the marker of the genitive case is represented in written form with an apostrophe. This fact makes possible disengagement of –`s form from the noun to which it properly belongs. E.g.: The man I saw yesterday’s son, where -`s is appended to the whole group (the so-called group genitive). It may even follow a word which normally does not possess such a formant, as in somebody else’s book.
There is no universal point of view as to the case system in English. Different scholars stick to a different number of cases.
1. There are two cases. The Common one and The Genitive;
2. There are no cases at all, the form `s is optional because the same relations may be expressed by the ‘of-phrase’: the doctor’s arrival – the arrival of the doctor;
3. There are three cases: the Nominative, the Genitive, the Objective due to the existence of objective pronouns me, him, whom;
4. Case Grammar. Ch.Fillmore introduced syntactic-semantic classification of cases. They show relations in the so-called deep structure of the sentence. According to him, verbs may stand to different relations to nouns. There are 6 cases:
1) Agentive Case (A) John opened the door;
2) Instrumental case (I) The key opened the door; John used the key to open the door;
3) Dative Case (D) John believed that he would win (the case of the animate being affected by the state of action identified by the verb);
4) Factitive Case (F) The key was damaged ( the result of the action or state identified by the verb);
5) Locative Case (L) Chicago is windy;
6) Objective case (O) John stole the book.
4. The Problem of Gender in English
Gender plays a relatively minor part in the grammar of English by comparison with its role in many other languages. There is no gender concord, and the reference of the pronouns he, she, it is very largely determined by what is sometimes referred to as ‘natural’ gender for English, it depends upon the classification of persons and objects as male, female or inanimate. Thus, the recognition of gender as a grammatical category is logically independent of any particular semantic association.
According to some language analysts (B.Ilyish, F.Palmer, and E.Morokhovskaya), nouns have no category of gender in Modern English. Prof.Ilyish states that not a single word in Modern English shows any peculiarities in its morphology due to its denoting male or female being. Thus, the words husband and wife do not show any difference in their forms due to peculiarities of their lexical meaning. The difference between such nouns as actor and actress is a purely lexical one. In other words, the category of sex should not be confused with the category of sex, because sex is an objective biological category. It correlates with gender only when sex differences of living beings are manifested in the language grammatically (e.g. tiger – tigress). Still, other scholars (M.Blokh, John Lyons) admit the existence of the category of gender. Prof.Blokh states that the existence of the category of gender in Modern English can be proved by the correlation of nouns with personal pronouns of the third person (he, she, it). Accordingly, there are three genders in English: the neuter (non-person) gender, the masculine gender, the feminine gender.
Lecture 6: THE VERB.
1.General characteristics
Grammatically the verb is the most complex part of speech. First of all it performs the central role in realizing predication - connection between situation in the utterance and reality. That is why the verb is of primary informative significance in an utterance. Besides, the verb possesses quite a lot of grammatical categories. Furthermore, within the class of verb various subclass divisions based on different principles of classification can befound.
Semantic features of the verb. The verb possesses the grammatical meaning of verbiality - the ability to denote a process developing in time. This meaning is inherent not only in the verbs denoting processes, but also in those denoting states, forms of existence, evaluations, etc.
Morphological features of the verb. The verb possesses the following grammatical categories: tense, aspect, voice, mood, person, number, finitude and phase. The common categories for finite and non-finite forms are voice, aspect, phase and finitude. The grammatical categories of the English verb find their expression in synthetical and analytical forms. The formative elements expressing these categories are grammatical affixes, inner inflexion and function words. Some categories have only synthetical forms ( person, number), others - only analytical (voice). There are also categories expressed by both synthetical and analytical forms (mood, tense, aspect).
Syntactic features. The most universal syntactic feature of verbs is their ability to be modified by adverbs. The second important syntactic criterion is the ability of the verb to perform the syntactic function of the predicate. However, this criterion is not absolute because only finite forms can perform this function while non-finite forms can be used in any function but predicate. And finally, any verb in the form of the infinitive can be combined with a modal verb.
2. Classifications of English verbs
According to different principles of classification, classifications can be morphological, lexical-morphological, syntactical and functional.
A. Morphological classifications.
1. According to their stem-types all verbs fall into: simple (to go), sound- replacive (food - to feed, blood - to bleed), stress-replacive ( import - to im port, transport - to transport, expanded (with the help of suffixes and prefixes): cultivate, justify, overcome, composite (correspond to composite nouns): to blackmail), phrasal: to have a smoke, to give a smile (they always have an ordinary verb as an equivalent). 2.According to the way of forming past tenses and Participle II verbs can be regular and irregular.
B. Lexical-morphological classification is based on the implicit grammatical meanings of the verb. According to the implicit grammatical meaning of transitivity/intransitivity verbs fall into transitive and intransitive. According to the implicit grammatical meaning of stativeness/non-stativeness verbs fall into stative and dynamic. According to the implicit grammatical meaning of terminativeness/non-terminativeness verbs fall into terminative and durative . This classification is closely connected with the categories of Aspect and Phase.
C. Syntactic classifications. According to the nature of predication (primary and secondary) all verbs fall into finite and non-finite. According to syntagmatic properties (valency) verbs can be of obligatory and optional valency, and thus they may have some directionality or be devoid of any directionality. In this way, verbs fall into the verbs of directed (to see, to take, etc.) and non-directed action (to arrive, to drizzle, etc.):
Syntagmatic classification of English verbs
(according to prof.G.Pocheptsov)
V Vobj. She shook her head
Vaddr. He phoned me
V2 – V10 Vobj.-addr. She gave me
her pen
V11 – V15 Vadv. She behaved well
V1 V2 – V24 V16 – V24 Vobj.-adv. He put his hat
on the table
Vaddr.-adv. I won’t keep
you long
D. Functional classification. According to their functional significance verbs can be notional (with the full lexical meaning), semi-notional (modal verbs, link-verbs), auxiliaries.
3. The category of voice
The form of the verb may show whether the agent expressed by the subject is the doer of the action or the recipient of the action (John broke the vase - the vase was broken). The objective relations between the action and the subject or object of the action find their expression in language as the grammatical category of voice. Therefore, the category of voice reflects the objective relations between the action itself and the subject or object of the action:
Relations of actions The category of voice
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The category of voice is realized through the opposition Active voice::Passive voice. The realization of the voice category is restricted because of the implicit grammatical meaning of transitivity/intransitivity. In accordance with this meaning, all English verbs should fall into transitive and intransitive. However, the classification turns out to be more complex and comprises 6 groups:
1. Verbs used only transitively: to mark, to raise;
2.Verbs with the main transitive meaning: to see, to make, to build;
3. Verbs of intransitive meaning and secondary transitive meaning. A lot of intransitive verbs may develop a secondary transitive meaning: They laughed me into agreement; He danced the girl out of the room;
4.Verbs of a double nature, neither of the meanings are the leading one, the verbs can be used both transitively and intransitively: to drive home - to drive a car;
5.Verbs that are never used in the Passive Voice: to seem, to become;
6. Verbs that realize their passive meaning only in special contexts: to live, to sleep, to sit, to walk, to jump.
Some scholars admit the existence of Middle, Reflexive and Reciprocal voices. " Middle Voice" - the verbs primarily transitive may develop an intransitive middle meaning: That adds a lot; The door opened; The book sells easily; The dress washes well. "Reflexive Voice": He dressed; He washed - the subject is both the agent and the recipient of the action at the same time. It is always possible to use a reflexive pronoun in this case: He washed himself. "Reciprocal voice”: They met; They kissed - it is always possible to use a reciprocal pronoun here: They kissed each other.
We cannot, however, speak of different voices, because all these meanings are not expressed morphologically.
4. The category of tense
The category of tense is a verbal category that reflects the objective category of time. The essential characteristic of the category of tense is that it relates the time of the action, event or state of affairs referred to in the sentence to the time of the utterance (the time of the utterance being 'now ' or the present moment). The tense category is realized through the oppositions. The binary principle of oppositions remains the basic one in the correlation of the forms that represent the grammatical category of tense. The present moment is the main temporal plane of verbal actions. Therefore, the temporal dichotomy may be illustrated by the following graphic representation (the arrows show the binary opposition):
Present Past
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Future I Future II
Generally speaking, the major tense-distinction in English is undoubtedly that which is traditionally described as an opposition of past::present. But this is best regarded as a contrast of past:: non-past. Quite a lot of scholars do not recognize the existence of future tenses, because what is described as the 'future' tense in English is realized by means of auxiliary verbs will and shall. Although it is undeniable that will and shall occur in many sentences that refer to the future, they also occur in sentences that do not. And they do not necessarily occur in sentences with a future time reference. That is why future tenses are often treated as partly modal.
5. The Category of Aspect
The category of aspect is a linguistic representation of the objective category of Manner of Action. It is realized through the opposition Continuous::Non-Continuous (Progressive::Non-Progressive). The realization of the category of aspect is closely connected with the lexical meaning of verbs.
There are some verbs in English that do not normally occur with progressive aspect, even in those contexts in which the majority of verbs necessarily take the progressive form. Among the so-called ‘non-progressive’ verbs are think, understand, know, hate, love, see, taste, feel, possess, own, etc. The most striking characteristic that they have in common is the fact that they are ‘stative’ - they refer to a state of affairs, rather than to an action, event or process. It should be observed, however, that all the ‘non-progressive' verbs take the progressive aspect under particular circumstances. As the result of internal transposition verbs of non-progressive nature can be found in the Continuous form: Now I'm knowing you. Generally speaking the Continuous form has at least two semantic features - duration (the action is always in progress) and definiteness (the action is always limited to a definite point or period of time). In other words, the purpose of the Continuous form is to serve as a frame which makes the process of the action more concrete and isolated
Lecture 7: THE ADJECTIVE
(Лекция, семинар)
- General characteristics.
The adjective expresses the categorial semantics of property of a substance. It means that each adjective used in the text presupposes relation to some noun the property of whose referent it denotes, such as its material, colour, dimensions, position, state, and other characteristics both permanent and temporary. It follows from this that, unlike nouns, adjectives do not possess a full nominative value. Indeed, words like long, hospitable, fragrant cannot effect any self-dependent nominations; as units of informative sequences they exist only in collocations showing what is long, who is hospitable, what is fragrant.
Adjectives are distinguished by a specific combinability with nouns, which they modify, if not accompanied by adjuncts, usually in pre-position, and occasionally in postposition; by a combinability with link-verbs, both functional and notional; by a combinability with modifying adverbs.
To the derivational features of adjectives, belong a number of suffixes and prefixes of which the most important are: -ful (hopeful), -less (flawless), -ish (bluish), -ous (famous), -ive (decorative), -ic (basic); un- (unprecedented), in- (inaccurate), pre- (premature).
- Morphological characteristics.
The adjective has the following morphological characteristics:
Most adjectives have degrees of comparison: the comparative degree and the superlative degree. Some adjectives have no degrees of comparison.
The comparative degree denotes a higher degree of a quality.
E.g. She is taller than her sister.
My box is smaller than hers.
The superlative degree denotes the highest degree of a quality.
E.g. She is the tallest of the three sisters.
Her box is the smallest of all our boxes.
The noun modified by an adjective in the superlative degree has the definite article because the superlative degree of the adjective always implies limitation.
Adjectives form their degrees of comparison in the following way:
- by the inflexion –er, -est (synthetical way);
- by placing more and most before the adjective (analytical way).
Monosyllabic adjectives usually form their comparatives and superlatives in the first way, and polysyllabic adjectives in the second way.
The following polysyllabic adjectives, however, generally form their comparative and superlative degrees inflexionally:
- Adjectives of two syllables which end in –y, -ow, -er, -le.
happy happier (the) happiest
narrow narrower (the) narrowest
clever cleverer (the) cleverest
- Adjectives of two syllables which have the stress on the last syllable:
complete completer (the) completest
concise conciser (the) concisest
Some adjectives have irregular forms of degrees of comparison, e.g.:
good better (the) best
many, much more (the) most
Morphological composition of the adjective.
Adjectives are divided into simple, derivative and compound.
- Simple adjectives are adjectives which have neither prefixes nor suffixes. They are indecomposable: e.g. good, red, black.
- Derivative adjectives are adjectives which have derivative elements, suffixes or prefixes or both: beautiful, foolish, hopeless, unkind, unimportant.
Productive adjective-forming suffixes are:
- less: friendless
- like: childlike
- ish : childish, foolish
- -ed (-d): blue-eyed
Unproductive suffixes are:
- ful : careful
- ible : responsible
- able: reliable
- ant: important
- ent : dependent
- en: woollen
- ous : dangerous
- some: troublesome
Productive adjective-forming prefixes are:
un -: unhappy
pre -: prewar
The unproductive prefix of the adjective is:
in -: incorrect
- Compound adjectives are adjectives built from two or more stems. The main types of compound adjectives are as follows:
(a) noun-stem + adjective-stem: snow-white.
(b) noun-stem + participle-stem: life-giving, smoke-dried.
(c) adjective-stem +adjective-stem: deaf-mute.
(d) adjective-stem +noun-stem + suffix –ed : cold-hearted.
(e) noun-stem +noun-stem + suffix –ed : lynx-eyed.
(f) numeral-stem + noun-stem + suffix –ed : four-wheeled.
(g) adverb-stem +noun-stem + suffix –ed : over-peopled.
- Classification of adjectives. Their semantic and syntactic sub-classifications.
According to their meaning and grammatical characteristics adjectives fall under two classes: (1) qualitative adjectives, (2) relative adjectives.
1. Qualitative adjectives denote qualities of a substance directly, not through its relation to another substance, as size, shape, colour, physical and mental qualities, qualities of general estimation: little, large, high, soft, hard, warm, white, blue, strong, bold, beautiful, important, necessary, etc.
2. Relative adjectives denote qualities of a substance through their relation to materials (silken, woollen, wooden), to place (Italian, Asian), to time (monthly, weekly), to some action (preparatory, rotatory).
Grammatical characteristics of qualitative adjectives.
1. Most qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison:
big bigger (the) biggest
interesting more interesting (the) most interesting
Some qualitative adjectives such as greenish, darkish, incurable, unsuitable, chief, principal, have no degrees of comparison.
2. They have certain typical suffixes, such as –ful, -less, -ous, -ent, -able, -y, -ish: careful, careless, dangerous, convenient, comfortable, silvery, watery, whitish, shortish.
3. From most of them adverbs can be formed by the suffix –ly :
graceful – gracefully gay – gaily
4. Most qualitative adjectives can be used as attributes and predicatives.
How lovely the little river is, with its dark, changing wavelets! (ATTRIBUTES)
The young man was introduced, and they sat down at the table. (ATTRIBUTE)
But you’re nearly as old as I am! (PREDICATIVE)
The Hartlys thought he was ‘rich’. George Augustus was so very comfortable … that he too really thought he was rich! (PREDICATIVES)
Grammatical characteristics of relative adjectives.
1. Relative adjectives have no degrees of comparison.
2. They do not form adverbs with the suffix –ly.
3. They have certain typical suffixes, such as –en, -an, -ist, -ic, -ical: wooden, Italian, socialist, synthetic, analytical.
4. Relative adjectives are chiefly used as attributes.
… she was a fair example of the middle American class… (ATTRIBUTE)
She had noticed a pretty wooden chain upon Gretel’s neck. (ATTRIBUTE)
“Certainly,” answered Hilda, looking kindly into the two earnest faces, and wishing from her heart that she had not spent so much of her monthly allowance for lace and finery. (ATTRIBUTE)
The morning was windy and sharp. (PREDICATIVE)
It must be pointed out that no hard and fast line of demarcation exists between relative and qualitative adjectives. C o m p a r e: silken thread (relative adjective), but silken hair (qualitative adjective).
5. Substantivized adjectives.
Substantivized adjectives have acquired some or all of the characteristics of the noun, but their adjectival origin is still generally felt.
Substantivized adjectives are divided into wholly substantivized and partially substantivized adjectives.
Wholly substantivized adjectives have all the characteristics of nouns, namely the plural form, the genitive case; they are associated with articles, i. e. they have become nouns: a native, the natives, a native’s hut.
Some wholly substantivized adjectives have only the plural form: eatables, valuables, ancients, sweets, greens.
Partially substantivized adjectives acquire only some of the characteristics of the noun; they are used with the definite article. Partially substantivized adjectives denote a whole class: the rich, the poor, the unemployed. They may also denote abstract notions: the good, the evil, the beautiful, the singular, the plural, the future, the present, the past.
Substantivized adjectives denoting nationalities fall under wholly and partially substantivized adjectives.
Wholly substantivized adjectives are: a Russian – Russians, a German – Germans.
Partially substantivized adjectives are: the English, the French, the Chinese.
6. Adjectivized nouns
There is also the question of the opposite phenomenon — that of nouns becoming adjectives. For a variety of reasons, this question presents a number of difficulties and has, accordingly, given rise to prolonged and inconclusive discussions. The facts are, briefly stated, these. In Modern English a noun may stand before another noun and modify it. Witness numerous formations of the type stone wall, speech sound, peace talks, steel works, the Rome treaty, etc. The question, as usually asked, is, whether the first component of such phrases is a noun or whether it has been adjectivised, i. e. become an adjective. Different views have been put forward here. The view that the first element of such phrases as stone wall is a noun has been defended by H. Sweet and others, the view that it is an adjective or at least approaches the adjective state, by O. Jespersen and others, and finally the view has also been expressed that this element is neither a noun nor an adjective but a separate part of speech, viz. an attributive noun. The very variety of opinions on the subject shows that the problem is one of considerable difficulty.
Russian linguist Ilyish reaches the conclusion that no perfectly objective result can be attained in trying to determine what part of speech the first element in such phrases is. This explains the existing difference of views on the subject and we are compelled to recognise that the question can only be solved in a somewhat subjective way, according as we start from one premise or another. If we start from the premise that we shall not speak of homonyms, or indeed new parts of speech, unless this is made strictly necessary by indisputable facts, we will stick to the view that the first element of such phrases as stone watt or speech sound is a noun in a special syntactical function. It is this view that appears to be the most plausible.
7. The category of intensity and comparison.
Analytical and inflected forms of comparison cannot be referred to as always absolutely identical in function. The structure of the analytical form permits contrastive stress-shifts and is therefore preferable when occasion demands. Stress on more and most will focus attention on the notion of degree, and stress on the adjective will make the lexical content of the adjective more prominent. Compare the following: (1) He is healthier than his brother. (2) He is more healthy than his brother. (3) He is more healthy, but less capable.
A universal feature in the grammar of adjectives is the absolute use of comparatives and superlatives. These forms are sometimes used where there is no direct comparison at all, as in: The better part of valour is discretion (Shakespeare); a better-class café, sooner or later (The Short Oxford Dictionary), etc.
The grammatical content of the superlative degree is that of degree of a property surpassing all other objects mentioned or implied by the context or situation. There are cases, however, when the meaning of the superlative comes to be essentially different, and only a very high degree of quality or property is meant, with no comparison at all. This is the so-called "elative" (Lat. gradus elativus), e. g.: I should do it with the greatest pleasure.
Absolute superlatives will be found in such patterns in Russian as: величайший ученый, милейший человек, в наилучшем настроении, в кратчайший срок, etc.
It is of interest to note that in certain contexts the comparative degree of adjectives may function as a stylistic alternative of "absolute superlative". The highest degree of quality comes to be expressed here by comparative contrast. The use of such "comparative elatives'' is highly effective and colourful, e. g.:
Could a man own anything prettier than this dining table with its deep tints, the starry, soft-petalled roses, the ruby coloured glass, and quaint silver furnishing; could a man own anything prettier than the woman who sat at it? (Galsworthy).
Look at her sitting there. Doesn't she make a picture? Chardin, eh? I've seen all the most beautiful women in the world; I've never seen anyone more beautiful than Madame Dirk Stroeve. (Maugham).
Intensification of a qualitative meaning expressed by adjectives may be produced by:
1) adverbial intensifiers: much, a great deal, far, by far, far and away, yet, still and all, e. g.: much better, still further, all hot and bothered, all blocdy;
He is far the most distinguished student in the group.
This week was by far the busiest we have ever had.
He was far and away the best example to follow.
Similar in function are such intensifiers in Russian as: намного, куда, все, еще, etc.
2) grammatical pleonasms: a) deafer than deaf, whiter than white; b) the whitest of the white, the greenest of the green.
Every little colony of houses has its church and school-house peeping from among the white roofs and shady trees; every house is the whitest of the white; every Venetian blind the greenest of the green; every fine day's sky the bluest of the blue. (Dickens)
Compare the Russian: чище чистого, слаще сладкого, яснее ясного, etc.
3) the combination of a Superlative with an of-phrase which renders the meaning of a partitive genitive, e. g.: Chekhov is the greatest of all writers of short stories. Patterns of this kind are fairly common in expressive language.
4) the idiomatic variety of the partitive genitive, e. g.: Beauty is the wonder of all wonders. (Wilde)
Scarlet jerked her hands away from his grasp and sprang to her feet", "I —you are the most ill-bred man in the world, coming here at this time of all times with your filthy — I should have known you'd never change. (Mitchell)
Further examples are: a patriot of patriots, a word of words, a hero of heroes. Analogous examples in Russian: чудо из чудес, герой из героев, храбрец из храбрецов, красавица из красавиц, etc.
The variant form of the partitive genitive, e. g.: lawyers' lawyers ( = the best of all lawyers), an actor's actor (= the best of all actors), similarly, a ballplayer' s ballplayer.
5) the of-phrase in the function of the so-called "genitivus qualitatis", a universal development in most languages.
Synonymous with adjectives proper, modification structures of this type abound in literary use. The linguistic essence of the structure is to render the idea of quality through the relationship of one object to the other.
Examples are: a look of joy = a joyful look, a man of energy = an energetic man, a thing of great importance = a very important thing, writers of great repute — very reputable writers, a glance of contempt — a contemptuous glance, a thing of great value = a valuable thing, a man of genius (Cf. arch. genial), etc.
7) noun-phrases N + Itself —a stylistic alternative of the absolute superlative degree (so-called "elative"), e. g.:
Mr. Pickwick is kindness itself. You are patience itself = You are most patient. She was prudence itself — She was most prudent.
Phrases of this sort are more forceful and expressive than the respective adjective in the superlative degree. Such structures of predication are good evidence of the fact that quality in some cases can be expressed more effectively by a noun than an adjective.
8) noun-phrases all + N:
She is all patience, you're all activity.
She is all goodness (Cf. She is very good) . He is all nerves. (Cf. He is very nervous).
He was all the kindest consideration (Cf. He was most considerate).
The use of nouns instead of adjectives gives added emphasis to the given quality. Consider also the following example:
June stood in front, fending off his idle curiosity — a little bit of a thing as somebody once said — all hair and spirit, with fear less blue eyes, a firm jaw, and a bright colour, whose face and body seemed to slender, for her crown of her red-gold hair. (Galsworthy)
9) the use of abstract nouns made from adjectives. Compare:
her soft hair the softness of her hair
red roses the red (ness) of the roses
dark despair the darkness of despair
the dark night the dark of night
10) the use of nouns in the function of emphatic modifiers.
In such uses nouns weaken their meaning of "substance" and approach adverbs. This adverbial use of nouns shows great diversity. It will be helpful to distinguish the following:
a) relations of time, as in: life long, week long, age long, etc. b) comparison: (different degrees of quality) cold black, straw yellow, silver grey, lily white, ash blond, ice cold, snow white, iron hard, sky blue, dog tired, paper white, pencil thin, ruler straight, primrose yellow, brick red, blade sharp, dirt cheap; mountains high, a bit longer, a trifle easier, a shade darker, ankle deep.
Patterns of this kind are generally used metaphorically and function as expedients of express intensity and emphasis, e. g.:
I ' ll send Pork to Macon to-morrow to buy more seed. Now the Y ankles won't burn it and our troops won't need it. Good Lord, cotton ought to go sky high this fall. (Mitchell)
11) the use of intensifying adverbs, e. g.: completely, entirely, thoroughly, utterly, awfully, terribly, fearfully, frightfully, dreadfully, frantically, beastly, terrifically, etc.
The use of a noun rather than an adjective is very often preferred as a more forcible expressive means to intensify the given quality. Compare the following synonymic forms of expression:
He was quite a success. — He was quite successful.
It was good fun.— It was funny.
It is to be noted that different shades of intensity of a qualitative meaning may be expressed by derivational prefixes, such as: archi -, extra-, hyper-, ultra-, etc., e. g.: extraordinary hypercritical, hypersensitive, superhuman, superfine, ultrafashionable, ultra-rapid.
Expressive negation of a qualitative meaning is sometimes implied in adjectives with negative prefixes. Depending on the lexical meaning of the stem and the context adjectives with the prefixes in- and un- may have a positive meaning or indicate a high degree of a given quality, e. g.: invaluable, incomparable, incredible, unthinkable, etc.
List of books:
1. B.Ilyish. The Structure of Modern English.
2. M.Blokh. A Course in Theoretical Grammar.
3. Iofic L.L., Chakhoyan I.P., Pospelova A.G. Readings in the theory of English grammar.
4. Волкова
5. E.Morokhovskaya. Fundamentals of Theoretical Grammar.
6. И.П.Иванова, В.В.Бурлакова, Г.Г.Почепцов. Теоретическая грамматика современного англ. яз..
7. Methods Guides.
Lecture 8: THE ADVERB
(Лекция, семинар)
1. General charactristics.
The adverb is a part of speech which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points out some characteristic features of an action or a quality.
The function of the adverb is that of an adverbial modifier. An adverb may modify verbs (verbals), words of the category of state, adjectives, and adverbs.
(Annette turned her neck lazily, touched one eyelash and said: ‘He amuses Winifred”.
And glancing sidelong at his nephew he thought…
For a second they stood with hands hard clasped.
And now the morning grew so fair, and all things were so wide awake.
The man must have had diabolically acute hearing.
Harris spoke quite kindly and sensibly about it.)
In accord with their categorial meaning, adverbs are characterised by a combinability with verbs, adjectives and words of adverbial nature. The functions of adverbs in these combinations consists in expressing different adverbial modifiers. Adverbs can also refer to whole situations; in this function they are considered under the heading of situation-"determinants".
Cf.: The woman was crying hysterically. (an adverbial modifier of manner, in left-hand contact combination with the verb-predicate) Wilson looked at him appraisingly. (an adverbial modifier of manner, in left-hand distant combination with the verb-predicate) Without undressing she sat down to the poems, nervously anxious to like them... (an adverbial modifier of property qualification, in right-hand combination with a post-positional stative attribute-adjective) You've gotten awfully brave, awfully suddenly. (an adverbial modifier of intensity, in right-hand combination with an adverb-aspective determinant of the situation) Then he stamps his boots again and advances into the room. (two adverbial determinants of the situation: the first — of time, in right-hand combination with the modified predicative construction; the second — of recurrence, in left-hand combination with the modified predicative construction)
Adverbs can also combine with nouns acquiring in such cases a very peculiar adverbial-attributive function, essentially in post-position, but in some cases also in pre-position. E.g.:
The world today presents a picture radically different from what it was before the Second World War.
As to their structure adverbs are divided into:
(1) simple adverbs (long, enough, then, there, etc.);
(2) derivative adverbs (slowly, likewise, forward, headlong, etc.). The most productive adverb-forming suffix is –ly. There are also some other suffixes: -wards, ward; - long, -wise.
(3) compound adverbs (anyhow, sometimes, nowhere, etc.);
(4) composite adverbs (at once, at last, etc.).
2. Classification of adverbs.
Adverbs are commonly divided into qualitative, quantitative and circumstantial.
By qualitative such adverbs are meant as express immediate, inherently non-graded qualities of actions and other qualities. The typical adverbs of this kind are qualitative adverbs in -ly. E. g.:
The little boy was crying bitterly over his broken toy. The plainly embarrassed Department of Industry confirmed the fact of the controversial deal.
The adverbs interpreted as "quantitative" include words of degree. These are specific lexical units of semi-functional nature expressing quality measure, or gradational evaluation of qualities. They may be subdivided into several very clearly pronounced sets.
The first set is formed by adverbs of high degree. These adverbs are sometimes classed as "intensifiers": very, quite, entirely, utterly, highly, greatly, perfectly, absolutely, strongly, considerably, pretty, much. The second set includes adverbs of excessive degree (direct and reverse) also belonging to the broader subclass of intensifiers: too, awfully, tremendously, dreadfully, terrifically. The third set is made up of adverbs of unexpected degree: surprisingly, astonishingly, amazingly.
As we see, the degree adverbs, though usually described under the heading of "quantitative", in reality constitute a specific variety of qualitative words, or rather some sort of intermediate qualitative-quantitative words, in so far as they are used as quality evaluators. In this function they are distinctly different from genuine quantitative adverbs which are directly related to numerals and thereby form sets of words of pronominal order. Such are numerical-pronominal adverbs like twice, thrice, four times, etc.; twofold, threefold, many fold, etc.
Thus, we will agree that the first general subclass of adverbs is formed by qualitative adverbs which are subdivided into qualitative adverbs of full notional value and degree adverbs — specific functional words.
Circumstantial adverbs are also divided into notional and functional.
The functional circumstantial adverbs are words of pronominal nature. Besides quantitative (numerical) adverbs mentioned above, they include adverbs of time, place, manner, cause, consequence. Many of these words are used as syntactic connectives and question-forming functionals. Here belong such words as now, here, when, where, so, thus, how, why, etc.
As for circumstantial adverbs of more self-dependent nature, they include two basic sets: first, adverbs of time; second, adverbs of place: today, tomorrow, already, ever, never, shortly, recently, seldom, early, late; homeward, eastward, near, far, outside, ashore, etc. The two varieties express a general idea of temporal and spatial orientation and essentially perform deictic (indicative) functions in the broader sense. Bearing this in mind, we may unite them under the general heading of "orientative" adverbs, reserving the term "circumstantial" to syntactic analysis of utterances.
Thus, the whole class of adverbs will be divided, first, into nominal and pronominal, and the nominal adverbs will be subdivided into qualitative and orientative, the former including genuine qualitative adverbs and degree adverbs, the latter falling into temporal and local adverbs, with further possible subdivisions of more detailed specifications.
3 Category of state.
Open to thought and discussion is the linguistic nature of such words in the English vocabulary as are generally registered in dictionaries either as predicative adjectives or adverbs, e. g.: ablase в огне, abloom в цвету, adrift на плаву, afire в огне, aflame в огне, afloat на воде, на плаву, ahead впереди, alone один, aloof в стороне, asleep спящий, awake неспящий, aware осознающий, etc.
From a historical point of view it is interesting to note that most predicative adjectives of this kind have originated from prepositional phrases, e. g. : abloom < in bloom, aboil < on the boil, afire < on fire, aflame < in flame, ajar < on the jar, asleep < in sleep, etc. Some others go back to participial forms, e. g. : aghast (agast, agasted < past participle of agasten — "to terrify"), afraid < old past participle of affray, etc.
The functioning units of the given type make up a special class of words which L. V. Sčerba aptly called "category of state". And there seems no small justification to introduce this term 1.
A bit of study will lead us to the conclusion that according to the positions they can fill and the function they can perform in various structures they do not need to be classed as adjectives or adverbs.
When we come to examine the patterns in which words of this morphological class are involved, we find that their operation in the structure of speech exhibits special formal qualities distinguishing them from adjectives and adverbs with which they contrast. The first to be mentioned here is that they are marked by grammatical indication of time and mood in which the copula-verb or its "meaningful absence" is always a necessary component.
Words of the category of state may denote: a) physical state of persons and things, e. g. : alive, asleep, athirst, awake; afire, aflame, alight, aglow, ablaze, etc.; b) psychological state: afraid, agape, agog, aghast, ashamed, ashudder, atremble, aware, etc.; c) state in motion, e. g.: afoot, astir, afloat, etc. Some words of this class denote position in space, e. g.: aloof, astray, astride, askew, etc.
The formal arrangements in which these words occur may be briefly characterised as follows:
a) following a copula-verb, they generally function as subjective or objective predicatives. In this function they easily combine with copulative verbs cf various kind, e. g.: Her little resolute face under its copper crown was suspiciously eager and aglow. (Galsworthy). The lamps were still alight all pale, but not a soul stirred — no living thing in sight. (Galsworthy) The butler came to lay the table for dinner, and seeing his master apparently asleep , exercised extreme caution in his movement. (Galsworthy) Then he became aware of something else. A true artist never stands aloof from the people.
еwords of the category of state are also used as ordinary attributes in post-position or emphatic attributes.
4. Comparison and intensification.
Among adverbs there are some which have degrees of comparison and others which have not.
Adverbs in the comparative degree, whether formed by adding the suffix -er or analytically by adding more and most may take the same qualifiers that comparative adjectives do, e. g.: still more difficult, a little louder.
The adverbial meaning can be intensified by adding right, far, by far, e. g. : far ahead, right ahead, far better, better by far, far down, far below, etc.
Intensity of adverbial meaning may also be produced by the use of full and well as intensifiers. The latter are survivals of Old English and less frequent in present-day use, e. g.: He was well out of sight; well ahead, etc.
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