The period between the world wars.
7.2.1. The situation in Ireland exploded during the world war. In 1916 the Easter Rebellion caused a profound change in Britain’s relations with the Irish. While thousands of Irish participated in the British war effort, pro-independence activists saw the war as an opportunity to win total freedom. On Easter Sunday in 1916 an armed uprising took place in Dublin. The British brutally suppressed the Easter Rebellion. In 1918 Irish representatives to Parliament refused to take their seats and instead declared an independent Irish Free State. They formed their own Parliament. The British refused to recognize the rebel government, but the Irish republicans had the support of the people, especially during the following years of guerrilla warfare. In 1921, the Irish Republic was proclaimed.
7.2.2. Finally, both sides accepted a bill establishing the independent Irish Free State. It became an independent nation, but it remained part of the British Empire. Under this arrangement the six northern Irish counties, which were predominantly Protestant, continued to be part of Britain. Some members of the Irish Republican Army never recognized this provision and conflict continued into the early XXI century.
7.2.3. The worldwide economic depression of 1929 struck Britain hard. Unemployment rose to 2, 5 million within a year and to 3 million by the beginning of 1933. The government put emergency measures into effect to raise income taxes on the wealthy, to reduce salaries of government workers, and to reduce unemployment benefits. Despite the effects of the Great Depression, Britain was still one of the great world powers. It was a leader in the League of Nations. Later the colonies of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa became independent countries, although they remained part of the British Commonwealth of Nations, a loose confederation of nations and political entities with historic ties to Britain.
7.2.4. The period saw many outstanding achievements. In 1928, Alexander Fleming made his crucial discovery that came about accidentally in the course of research on influenza. His chance observation laid the basis for the development of penicillin therapy.
At about the same time Scottish engineer John L. Baird succeeded in transmitting a recognizable moving image. He made the first ever publci demonstration of television in January 1926. Three years later, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) began transmitting its news and variety shows using his invention. It was the first commercial use of television.
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World War II
7.3.1. Yet the political situation in Europe resulted in another war. World War II was a truly global conflict with many facets: immense human suffering, and the use of the atom bomb. The conflict began on September 1, 1939 due to the German invasion of Poland, and lasted until summer of 1945, involving many of the world's countries. About 50 million people died as a result of the war. This figure includes acts of genocide, incredibly bloody battles in Europe and the Pacific Ocean, and the atomic bombings of two cities in Japan.
7.3.2. Britain joined the war several days later. Britain's new Prime Minister, Sir Winston Churchill, played a great role in keeping up the fighting spirit of the British people. But at the beginning of the war, in June 1940, Britain stood alone against the Nazis. The period of constant bombing raids against British cities, railways and factories was called the Blitz. The pilots of the British air force tried to fight off the German planes. After June 1941 the British situation changed. Germany had attacked the Soviet Union and Japan had attacked the United States of America. Germany now had to fight on two fronts: in the east and in the west. By 1943 the Soviet army was pushing the Germans out of the USSR, and Britain had driven German and Italian troops out of North Africa. In July 1943 the Allied troops landed in Italy.
7.3.3. Meanwhile a huge invasion of France was being prepared. A large army and thousands of ships and boats were gathered on the southern shore of Great Britain. The day of the invasion went down into history as D-Day. On the night of June 5, 1944, the Allied Army boarded ships in Great Britain. A giant fleet of 600 warships and 4,000 smaller boats carried 176,000 Allied soldiers towards France. The soldiers were from the United States, Britain, Canada, France, Poland and many other nations. In the sky 11,000 Allied planes bombed the German positions in France. Early in the morning of June 6, the Allies landed on the French beaches. By nightfall, the Allied army was in France. The invasion of France by Allied forces was the beginning of the end for Germany. Four months later France and Belgium were freed. Then the battle for Germany began. In May 1945 Germany surrendered.
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7.3.4. An important feature of post-war politics is the creation of the United Nations Organization in order to protect peace and democracy in the world and prevent new wars. Britain became member of its Security Council. But from the very start this new world organization faced great difficulties. The idea of the four Allies (the Soviet Union, the United States, France and Britain) working together for the recovery of Central Europe did not work. Europe became divided into the eastern part under Soviet control, and the western part under the control of Britain, France and the United States.
Postwar Britain.
7.4.1. The postwar years saw the end of the British colonial empire. In India a movement for independence had been gathering momentum for decades. The British finally withdrew. The national liberation movement was led by Mohandas Gandhi who spent his life campaigning for human rights in India. The abandonment of India was a blow to British prestige and the beginning of the total disintegration of the empire. The next crisis for the empire occurred in Egypt, where British domination of the Suez Canal sustained Britain’s role as a world trader. In 1956 Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser seized the canal. Britain, with military assistance from France and Israel, attempted to retake the canal but failed. The Suez crisis saw Britain lose all of its influence in the region and raised at home the idea that Britain was no longer a great power.
7.4.2. Anyway, within the country private enterprise led the growth of what was being called “the affluent society.” The value of the goods that workers could buy with their wages rose by 40 percent during the 1950s. Two symbols of affluence—cars and televisions—soon became so common that the government undertook a program of motorway expansion. The accession of young Queen Elizabeth II in 1952 provided a ray of light toward a brighter future, as did the extraordinary British accomplishments around the world.
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7.4.3. In 1953 a British expedition scaled the world’s highest mountain, Mount Everest; the news of the conquest came on the young Queen's coronation day. Another British expedition crossed Antarctica. In the early 1960s, British popular culture swept the world. For a time the United Kingdom replaced the United States as the leader in fashion and style. The hallmark of the period was the models by British designer Mary Quant. The craze of the day was the miniskirt, which had a hemline well above the knees. Quant began to mass-produce miniskirts in 1961. At the same time, popular British music groups such as the Beatles and the Rolling Stones, gained worldwide popularity.
7.4.4. Since the mid-1970s, Britain’s economy received a boost with the discovery and exploitation of abundant oil reserves in the North Sea. Because of this oil, Britain no longer depends on imports of foreign petroleum products and also profits from exports of petroleum products.
One of the most crucial developments in post-war Europe is the emergence of the European Union. Originally, it was the European Economic Community was established by the Treaty of Rome of 1957 and implemented оn January 1, 1958. Later it was renamed as European Community. Finally, Britain joined successfully on January 1, 1973. Things are not so clear with Britain's membership in the European Union. Up to now, Britain remains one of the most Eurosceptic countries of the EU. Despite pro-EU policies of both Blair and Brown, it is expected that most Britons will vote against the EU Constitution, if any referendum takes place.
LECTURE 08
EDUCATION IN THE UK
Secondary education.
8.1.1. Primary education is given to children between 5 and 11 years of age. A primary school is subdivided into infant schoolsfor children aged 5 to 7 and junior schoolsfor children aged 7 to 11. In small country places both the infant department and the junior department may be combined under the roof of one school. In infant school (or classes) children are encouraged to read, to write in their own words, to understand and make use of numbers. Subject teaching is rare. At the age of 7 children go to the junior school where the teaching becomes more formal. About 40-50 minutes every day are spent on arithmetic. Almost an hour a week is given to work in history, geography, nature study and music. Pride of place is given to English, which may occupy from 7 to 10 hours a week.
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8.1.2. Secondary education embraces children from 11 years of age to 16 years of age. The majority of educational establishments are comprehensive schools. The main advantages of the comprehensive schools are that these schools are open to children of all types of ability from the age of 11; they are large schools which give a much, wider range of subjects than smaller schools, so that teenagers can choose a course of studies according to their individual inclinations and abilities.
8.1.3. According to the National Curriculum, children at the age of 7, 11, 14 and 16 are tested. Until the year of testing schools are allowed to choose the subjects to teach and the ways of teaching those subjects. Besides, schoolchildren are given the opportunity to choose the subjects to learn. The English School Syllabus is divided into Art (or Humanities) and Sciences. Art pupils study English Language and Literature, History, Foreign languages, Music, Art, Drama. Science pupils study Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics (Maths), Economics, Technical Drawing, Biology, Geography. Besides, secondary school students must do general education subjects like Physical Education (PE).The usual grading system in secondary school is alphabetical: A – excellent/outstanding; B – above average; C – average; D – below average; E – failing.
8.1.4. There is a wide network of further education institutions in Britain. They give students the chance to increase their theoretical background and professional training. Students may get further education after they have passed their General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) or General National Vocational Qualification (GNVQ) exams taken at the age of 16. Further education includes sixth-form colleges and classes where students work for "A" (Advanced) level exams necessary to enter a university. It also includes colleges of further education which provide a theoretical background and professional qualification training in nursing, accountancy, management, art, music, etc.
Tertiary education.
8.2.1. Britain has more than 90 universities. British universities can be divided into several categories. The foremost universities are the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, both founded in the Middle Ages. Scotland has institutions at Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St. Andrews. Another type of university is the so-called redbrick universities — old and solid schools built in the 19th century when bricks were the standard building material. The large number of ultramodern universities that sprouted up in the last half of the 20th century are often called cement block and plate glass universities. London has its own great schools, the enormous University of London and its world-famous college, the London School of Economics.
8.2.2. Higher education can also be obtained through the Open University, founded in 1969, which offers extension courses taught through correspondence, television and radio programs, and videocassettes. It also sponsors local study centers and residential summer schools. The purpose of the Open University is to reach people who may not ordinarily be qualified for university study. In order to get higher education school leavers may hand in applications to different universities. The final decision is taken by Universities and Colleges Admission Service (UCAS) which, in accordance with the student's results of the "A" level exams, offers a place to this or that university. The better results of the exams are the better university or college place can be offered.
8.2.3. After 3 years of studies at the university a student may get a first degree of Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BS). The first degree is usually an honors degree. The letters BA or BS are often added after the graduates' names. However, the title of a degree does not necessarily reflect the field in which the student has studied. Those graduates who want to continue their studies at the university may work for a master's degreeor a doctorate. To get a master's degree a student needs one more year of study. Doctorate is the highest degree in Britain's universities. The letters "Dr" before a person's name indicate that he or she has the title of "Doctor", the highest title at the university – PhD (Doctor of Philosophy).
8.2.4. University teaching combines lectures, practical classes (in scientific subjects) and small group teaching in either seminars (discussion groups) and tutorials or supervisions (run by tutors or supervisors). At most universities in Britain the academic year is divided into three terms. Examinations are not necessarily taken annually. University education may be not only full-time but also part-time. Some people want to get a degree but they need only evening or correspondence courses. At some universities there is a department of continuing education which runs four, five or even more year courses for students combining their work and education.
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