THE BRITISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH
As a result,Bohdan Khmelnytsky began to seek out other allies, but his search was cut short by his death in 1657.
No strong leader came to take Khmelnytsky's place and a period of chaos ensued.
The war between Poland and Russia split the Cossacks ar.d Ukrainian population. They had to decide where to seek the protection - from the Russians, the Poles or the Turks, ...
In 1667, the. Russo-Polish war ended with the Treaty of Andrusovo. According to the Treaty Ukrainian, territory on the western side of the Dnieper River remained under the supervision of the Polish crown. The area on lite left side was placed under the protection of the Russian Tsar.
Though the two parts of Ukraine were granted autonomous status, in fact both Russia and Poland weakened Ukrainian autonomy. Russia stationed Russian troops on the Ukrainian kinds. The Ukrainian Orthodox Church had to recognize the supreme authority of the Patriarch of Moscow.
Unfortunate was the fate of the Ukrainian land within the Polish State.The disintegration of the royal authority and the brutal treatment of the peasantry by the Polish nobility resulted in peasant uprisings and depopulation of these lands.
Only in the southern reaches of the Dnieper regioii around the Cossaak fortress of the Sich did the Ukrainian people continue to live as a free life. But soon even this remote part fell to the powerful Russian State.
Russo-Swedish War of the first decades offered Ukraine an opportunity to free itself from Russia. Ukrainian hetman Mazepa joined with, the Swedish king Charles XII but the Russian victory at Polta, a in 1709 left Ukraine at the mercy of the Russian-tsar.
In 1709 the Zaporizhyan-Sich was ruined and part of the Cossacks passed over to the Crimean Khanate. They founded there Oleshkivska Sich (near modern Kherson). Only in 1734 they were allowed to return and found Nova Sich on the Pidpilna River (now village Pokrovske in Dnipropelrovsk Region).
In the course of the revolts in Zaporizhia and the Pugachov uprising in 1775, Catherine. II destroyed the Sich, dispersed freedom-loving Cossacks and enserfed the Ukrainian peasantry.
Part of the Cossacks escaped to the Trans-Danube lands under control of Turkey and founded there Trans-Danube Sich (1775-1828). When the Russo-Turlcish war (1C28-29) broke the Trans-Danube Cossacks refused to fight against Russia. On May 18, 1828 the Cossacks header, by their Ataman passed on ihe side of Russia. After the war the Cossacks were reorganized in the Azov, Cossack Army.
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Following the partitions of Poland (1772-1793-1795) most of the Ukrainian lands were incorporated into the Russian Umpire. The Western portion of Ukraine was absorbed by the Austrian Empire.
Thus, all remnants of Ukraine's autonomy were annihilated and her lands became simply the provinces of the two.great empires.
In the Independent Ukraine the Cossack glory is cherished. In 1990 to mark, the 500 anniversary of Zaporizhyan Sich there was a great holiday Days, of Cossack Glory with initiation into young Cossacks under supervision of new Cossack Hetman of Ukraine [19, p. 36].
Text 3
UKRAINIAN LANGUAGE
Ukrainian belongs to the group of the Slavic languages. Slavs are a group of Eastern European peoples, subdivided into Eastern Slavs (Great Russians. - Ukrainians and Byelorussians), Western Slavs (Poles, Moravians, Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes, Bulgarians).
In. the VII.century a tribe of Western Slavs headed, by Viatko migrated from the Middle and Low Vistula to the Volga and settled in the area between the Volga and Oka. Their language was influenced by the local languages of the Finn and Turkic origin. In 981 they were subdued by Prince Volodymyr Sviatoslavovych. On the land of Viatychi. Moscow came into being. In the 14th century the land of Viatychi was included into the Great Principality of Muscovia which became called Rus. They spoke. Russian.
In 862 the Great Moravia Principality became Christian but the church service was led in. Latin which the Moravians didn't understand. Prince of Great. Moravia Rostyslav asked Byzantium to send teachers to Moravia to teach Christianity in the Slavic language.
The Emperor of Byzantium Mykhailo III sent to Moravia a mission headed by two brothers -Kostiantyn /later Cyril/ and Methodius from Solun /now Salonica in,Greece/. Bothknewthe Old Bulgarian language then spoken in Solun.
On Mai 24, 863 the Solun brothers declared in Pliska, the capital of Bulgaria in that time, noticed about the creation of the Slavic alphabet. Cyril had been already known as an utstanding scholar and the new alphabet gothir, name "Cyrillic"
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In 988 Prince Volodymyr introduced Christianity in Kyivan Rus.
The Old Bulgarian language (it is called Old Slavic, Old Church Slavic) spread in Pannonia, Bulgaria, Serbia and Rus.
In Rus the Old Bulgarian language mixed with, the local language of Rusiches who spoke the so-called "Kyivan.language'' (Syiatoslay spoke "in Kyivan") or the Old Ukrainian .
Under the influence of the Old Bulgarian the Old Ukrainit-n buaino called the Church Slavic language. In the-books this v. language .spread over Rus. The Kyi /an (Old Ukrainian) language was net written, language and didn't spread.as far as the Church Slavic language.,
In 1596 L.Zyzanii published, his "Grammar", in 1(519 the ''Grammar' of Smotrytskyi was published.
In 1632 the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was founded It. was named in honour of its protector Metropolitan Petto Mohyla /1597-1647/. The graduates of the Academy contributed much into development of education and culture not. only in Ukraine, but also in Russia, Belarus and other countries.
In the 15 century when Muscovia under tire name Rus became a state, the unification needed common Church language. Маnу people, came from Kyiv to Moscow. Elder Feodosii corrected translation of the Bible. Semeon Polotskyi was the teacher of the Tsar's children. Many books in Church Slavic, came from Kyiv to stay in the libraries, of the new capital. In 1687 Semen Polotskyi became co-founder of the Moscow- Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy upon the model of live Kyiv-Mohyla Academy. In the 18 century all the teachers of Academy were Ukrainians. ,
The first classics of the. new Ukrainian literature were Ivan Kotharevskyi (1769-1838) and Tares Shevchenko (1814-1861).
in the 19th century the circular letter of 1863 of the Tsar Minister P. Valuiev banned publishing books in Ukraine.
From the I930's to the 1980's , the policy of Russificatin forced Ukrainians to use the Russian language in government, schools' and television. Many Ukrainians resented this policy.
But decades of Russification caused many Ukrainians to know the Russian language better. Ukrainian became the official language of Ukraine m 1990. In 1990's; a growing number of ethnic Ukrainians and non-Ukrainians began studying the' Ukrainian language. The government irr accordance with the Constitution of Ukraine allows ethnic nrihoritieslo rise their own language in schools and other local affairs.
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The Ukrainian language is anindependent and original, unit of the Slavic group of Indo-European: languages. Ukrainian has some regional dialects, which vary according to a region's history arid the influence of other cultures on the region. Ukrainian dialects spoken by west Ukrainians show some Polish influence. Dialects from Eastern Ukraine reflect more
Russian traits. [19, p. 53-54]
Text 4
THE BRITISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH
The early English colonists in the new world were speaking Elizabethan English, the language of Shakespeare and Marlow, when they came to America. This is important and necessary for our understanding of some of the features which American English was to develop later on.
There are very few pure languages. English has been known as a word borrower In the formation of. the American English the English-speaking colonists were brought into contact with the different peoples who spoke different languages. Many words, derived from these languages, were added to the seventeenth-century form, of English. First in importance come the words derived from the speech of various Indian tribes This was caused by the necessity of talking about new things, qualities, operations, concepts, and ideas. The movement of a people to a new and different environment not only creates a problem of communication but makes it urgent.
The first colonists saw plants and animals which were new to them. Some of the fish they caught in the coastal, waters were unlike anything they had seen before. The land was occupied by tribes who spoke strange languages, wore strange clothing, prepared strange foods. Even the landscape was greatly different from the neatly tailored English countryside. Names had to be given to all these aspects of their new life. So, from the Indians were borrowed not only the many geographical mimes of rivers, lakes, mountains, but names for objects (plants, animals), as well as implements and food preparations of a new kind, such as canoe, moccasin, wigwam, toboggan, tomahawk, totem, igloo, hammock, etc.
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Besides the various Indian influences, American English reflects the other non-English cultures which the colonists met in their conquest of the ddntirient in the westward expansion of their territory, the English-speaking colonists soon came into contact with the casual French settlements in the Middle West. From the French a considerable number of word (were derived, c.g. rapids, prairies, etc. More substantial borrowings were made from the Spanish colonization and culture as the English-
Writ" has eve1 ved into a political game, aiming to restore the "one and indivisible" Russia.
After Ukraine joined the Moscow Empire at the end of the 17th century, the Ukrainian language was vetoed more than 100 times. In conditions of severe censorship, national interpretation of the Bible was considered as "anti-state action".
Panteleymon Kulish (1819-1897), a Ukrainian writer, historian, ethnographer and translator was the first person who challenged reactionaries from the Russian Orthodox Church. They say that the great poet Taras Shevchenko personally blessed his exploit. In 1872 "The Gospel" translated into Ukrainian by Panteleymon Kulisli was published in Vienna a principal part of the Bible, the so-called "The Old Testament", Kulish wrote for 13 years on his return to Ukraine. However, Kuiish's house near Chernyhyv where he kept the manuscript burnt together with his handwriting. In spite of Kuiish's old age, weak health and despair over the lost book, he got down to restore the burnt texts. Bul the writer's sudden death put an end to his work. Kuiish's friends - writer Ivan Nechuy-Levytskiy and scientist Ivan Puliuy completed his work on the Bible. The first non-abridged text of the Bible in Ukrainian was issued in 1903 and again in Vienna.
Professor-polyglet and ex-minister of creeds in the Ukrainian People's Republic (1920-1921) Ivan Ogienko executed the second translation of the Bible from the ancient Jewish language. Living abroad he adopted monkshood and became metropolitan Illarion. The "Ukrainian Bible by Illarion" was issued in 1949 with the assistance of the British biblical society. All Orthodox and Protestant chinches that serve masses in Ukrainian use this Bible. Ukrainian churches were allowed to use this Bible only after 1991 after the country announced independence.
However, the Ukrainian religions community was not fully satisfied with either variants of the national Bible. Some people pointed to the stylistic inaccuracies, others noted a great number of archaisms. The fact is that translation of Bible is a very difficult and time-consuming process. The translator must be a linguist theologian, interpreter of religious texts, expert on the ancient Jewish and Greek languages and stylist of the native language.
It seems that Ukraine has found a decent person to full this honorary mission, the author of the third translation the Bible is Rafail Turkonyak, a graduate of the Roman Catholic University and a clergyman from Lviv.
This theologian, linguist and polyglot began translating the Bible in 1972 in secret dining the time of the Soviet regime.
Undoubtedly, the manuscript consolidated the Ukraine religious community. Fourteen Christian Ukrainian churches and confessions supported the project despite the fact that its author is Greek Catholic. Favorable social and political conditions of democratic Ukraine allowed for the holding o public approbation of the manuscript with the participation of scientist-philologistsand doctors of theology. The new variant of the Ukrainian Bible is ready for publishing.
However, the biggest of confessions - the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchy has not participated in this process. Some of its hierarchies bring forward arguments about the "imperfection" of the Ukrainian language. For the sake of political ambitions they ignore the famous sermon of Apostle Pavel: God's word should be spread among people in their native language.
Somewhat unexpected statistics: 75% of Ukrainians consider themselves religious people although not all of them are willing to demonstrate their faith. Perhaps, the readiness of some banks and businesses to finance the publishing of the Bible is a confirmation of this fact. It is expected that the expenses for publishing the Bible will be great. The Bible will b issued by great circulation. Church communities, schools, libraries, universities, military divisions and families will be provided with the Bible. At last there will be a book readable by all Ukrainians; so far
only "Kobzar" performed the: role of the Ukrainians' handbook by Taras Shevchenko.
It is also likely that religious people will prefer real Ukrainian churches instead of the Russian-language Ukrainian church. Maybe the evident hostility of the Moscow Patriarchy to the Ukrainian Bible is based on this very prognosis? [53, p. 61-62]
Text 6
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