The complex and the compound sentence (different types of sentence connection).
According to the traditional view, all composite sentences are to be classified into compound sentences (coordinating their clauses) and complex sentences (subordinating their clauses), syndetic or asyndetic types of clause connection being specifically displayed with both classes.
A compound sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other. A clause is part of a sentence which has a subject and a predicate of its own. In a compound sentence the clauses may be connected:
(a) syndetically, i.e. by means of coordinating conjunctions (and, or, else, but, etc.) or conjunctive adverbs (otherwise, however, nevertheless, yet, etc.);
(b) asyndetically, i.e. without a conjunction or conjunctive adverb.
We can distinguish the following types of coordination:
1. Copulative coordination, expressed by the conjunctions ‘and, nor, neither…nor, not only…but (also)’. With the help of these conjunctions the statement expressed in the clause is simply added to that expressed in another.
2. Disjunctive coordination, expressed by the conjunctions ‘or, else, or else, either…or’, and the conjunctive adverb ‘otherwise’. By these a choice is offered between the statements expressed in two clauses.
3. Adversative coordination, expressed by the conjunctions ‘but, while, whereas’ and the conjunctive adverbs ‘nevertheless, still, yet’. These are conjunctions and adverbs connecting two clauses contrasted in meaning.
4. Causative-consecutive coordination, expressed by the conjunctions ‘for, so’ and the conjunctive adverbs ‘therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence’. ‘For’ introduces coordinate clauses explaining the preceding statement. ‘Therefore, so, consequently, hence, accordingly’ introduce coordinate clauses denoting cause, consequence and result.
Classification of complex sentences. Functional transpositions of subordinate clauses.
(a) A complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. This definition is true, however, only in a general sense. In an exact sense there is often no principal clause; this is the case with complex sentences containing a subject clause or a predicative clause.
Clauses in a complex sentence may be linked in two ways:
1. Syndetically, i.e. by means of subordinating conjunctions or connectives. There is a difference between a conjunction and a connective. A conjunction only serves as a formal element connecting separate clauses, whereas a connective serves as a connecting link and has at the same time a syntactic function in the subordinate clause it introduces.
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2. Asyndetically, i.e. without a conjunction or connective.
A complex sentence may contain two or more homogeneous clauses coordinated with each other. A subordinate clause may follow, precede, or interrupt the principal clause. A subordinate clause may be subordinated to the principal clause or to another subordinate clause. Accordingly we distinguish subordinate clauses of the first, second, third, etc. degree of subordination.
Subordinate clauses may be substituted by various syntactic structures, both complex and simple, while retaining the semantic and modal features of the kernel structures. The transforms, therefore, may be represented by word combinations, participial, gerundial, and infinitival constructions.
According to their grammatical function subordinate clauses are divided into subject, predicative, attributive, object, and adverbial clauses. Subject clauses perform the function of subject to the predicate of the sentence. Predicative clauses perform the function of a predicative. Object clauses perform the function of an object to the predicate-verb of the principal clause. An object clause may also refer to a non-finite form of the verb, to an adjective, or to a word belonging to the part of speech expressing state. Attributive clauses serve as an attribute to a noun (pronoun) in the principal clause. This noun or pronoun is called the antecedent of the clause. According to their meaning and the way they are connected with the principal clause attributive clauses are divided into relative and appositive ones. Attributive relative clauses qualify the antecedent, whereas attributive appositive clauses disclose its meaning. Attributive relative clauses can be restrictive and non-restrictive or descriptive.
1. An attributive relative restrictive clause restricts the meaning of the antecedent. It cannot be removed without destroying the meaning of the sentence.
2. An attributive relative non-restrictive clause does not restrict the meaning of the antecedent; it gives some additional information about it.
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A variant of the attributive non-restrictive clause is the continuative clause, whose antecedent is not one word but a whole clause.
E.g. He hasn’t helped her, which is a shame.
Attributive appositive clauses disclose the meaning of the antecedent, which is expressed by an abstract noun. An adverbial clause performs the function of an adverbial modifier. It can modify a verb, an adjective or an adverb in the principal clause. According to their meaning we distinguish the following kinds of adverbial clauses: adverbial clauses of time, place, cause (reason), purpose, condition, concession, result, manner, and comparison.
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