I. ТЕКСТЫ, В КОТОРЫХ ПРЕОБЛАДАЕТ ИНФОРМАЦИЯ ПЕРВОГО РОДА
(общественно-политические и научные)
1
J. H. В. Peel
"Who are the English?"
Who are the English? They are the descendants of Celts, Romans, Saxons, Jutes, Angles, Vikings, Normans; that being more or less the sequence of invaders who left their indelible mark1 upon the roads, fields, buildings, dialects, and place-names of England. Why were these hybrid people called English? The answer to that ques- tion is complex because the word England is a corruption of Engle- land, the land of the Engle or Angles. Why then did these Engle give their name to their new home? Nobody knows. The Engle themselves came from Slesvig in Germany. They were neither more numerous nor more gifted than any other of the permanent settlers. And yet, for reasons unknown to us, the land was named after them. As early as the year 897 the word Englisc was used both of the people and of their language. Mourning the decay of scholarship
in a country harried by warfare, King Alfred reported that few men south of Lincolnshire could translate a Latin letter into English (of Laedene on Englisc).
Even today an Englishman is surprised — and overseas visitors bewildered — by the variety of English dialects; but in Chaucer's time a Kentish man would have sounded almost unintelligible to a Cumbrian, and each would have failed to understand a Devonian. Nor was this Babel based solely on differences in pronunciation; many of the commonest words varied with the regions. Cornwall,
1 who left their indelible mark - которые оставили незабываемые меты
107
indeed, spoke its own Celtic language, and continued to speak it until the eighteenth century.
Both Scotland and Wales had their regionalism, but it was simple and clear-cut, being between the north and the south of those two countries. Moreover, the regionalism was curbed by the need to unite against England. The English, by contrast, had no such permanent stimulus, at any rate after the Norman conquest.
2
Edwin Emery
What is the Mass Media?
A message can be communicated to a mass audience by many means; hardly an American lives through a day without feeling the impact of at least one of the mass media. The oldest media are those of the printed word and picture which carry their message through the sense of sight: the weekly and daily newspapers, ma- gazines, books, pamphlets, direct mail circulars, and billboards. Radio is the mass communication medium aimed at the sense of sound, whereas television and motion pictures appeal both to the visual and auditory senses.
|
|
|
The reader turns to his newspaper for news and opinion, enter- tainment, and the advertising it publishes. In the weekly the focus
is upon the reader's own community; in the daily the focus is upon the nation and the world as well. Magazines give him background information, entertainment, opinion, and the advertising; books offer longer range and more detailed examination of subjects, as well as entertainment; pamphlets, direct mail pieces, and billboards bring the views of commercial and civic organizations. Films may inform and persuade as well as entertain. Television and radio offer entertainment, news and opinion, and advertising messages and can bring direct coverage of public events into the listener's home.
There are important agencies of communication which are ad- juncts of the mass media. These are (1) the press associations, which collect and distribute news and pictures to the newspapers, television and radio stations, and news magazines; (2) the syn- dicates, which offer background news and pictures, commentary, and entertainment features to newspapers, television and radio,
108
and magazines; (3) the advertising agencies, which serve their business clients, on the one hand, and the mass media, on the other; (4) the advertising departments of companies and insti- tutions, which serve in merchandising roles; and the public relations departments, which serve in information roles; (5) the public re- lations counselling firms and publicity organizations, which offer information on behalf of their clients, and (6) research individuals and groups, who help gauge the impact of the message and guide mass communicators to more effective paths.
Who are the communicators who work for and with these mass media? We think of the core as being the reporters, writers, editors, announcers, and commentators for newspapers, news magazines, television and radio, press associations, and syndicates. But there are many others: news photographers; book and publication editors and creative personnel in the graphic arts industry; advertising personnel of all types; public relations practitioners and information writers; business management personnel for the mass media; radio, television script and continuity writers; film producers and writers; magazine writers and editors; trade and business paper publication writers and editors; industrial publication editors; technical writers in such fields as science, agriculture, and home economics; spe-
|
|
|
cialists in mass communications research.
з
The New York Times
(The United States)
In several respects, the New York Times ranks as the best or near- best newspaper in the United States. Certainly the biggest in total operations among American elite papers, it is, with 854,000 copies daily, along with the New York News and the Los Angeles Times, among the nation's top three in circulation. Although in recent years it has cut down on full texts of speeches and documents, the Times does publish the total transcripts of most presidential press conferences and thus comes closest of all American dailies to being
a newspaper of record.
In a nation where no true national daily flourishes, the presti- gious New York Times comes closest to the claim of being nationally
109
read. A 1965 West Coast edition failed because most American newspaper advertising is local and out-of-state circulation does not seem to attract advertisers. But, despite that and the paper's pre- occupation with the populous metropolitan East Coast, over one- fourth of its readers live more than 100 miles from New York. The Times manages to have readers in 10,651 towns in every state and in nearly all countries. Because of its thoroughness, it is highly respected in the nation's colleges and universities, found in prac-
tically every academic library and widely read by college presidents, professors and students. Its thick Sunday edition, sometimes con- taining 400 pages and weighing four pounds, finds its way into pace-setting homes across the face of the nation, with at least one- third of the copies going outside New York City.
|
|
|
4
Freud's Followers
Although Freud's theories were initially rejected by the scientific community, he attracted a number of distinguished followers. Some of his students diverged from his phychoanalytic theories and started schools of their own.
The Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung, who Freud hoped would take over his leadership in the psychoanalytic movement, eventually developed his own psychology, called analytical psycho- logy. Borrowing heavily from Hindu1 mysticism, analytical psycho- logy stresses the collective unconscious, in which the unconscious contains symbols from humanity's collective past and not just from the individual's own past. For Jung, many neuroses occur because individuals fail to realize all aspects of their personalities.
Jung introduced the terms introversion and extroversion as basic personality orientations. He was also one of the first to discuss what is now known as developmental psychology. Jung found that many of his patients underwent significant personality changes when they reached the middle years of life. He argued that those parts of the personality that were unrealized in early years would demand expression in maturity. Such a conflict is known as a mid-
1 Hindu - индуистский
110
life crisis. For example, an aggressive businessman experiencing a mid-life crisis might, in his later years, feel an unrealized need to stay home and nurture his family.
Another of Freud's followers who eventually started his own school of psychology was the Austrian psychiatrist Alfred Adler. In his theory of individual psychology, Adler argued that the problem
at the core of neurosis was a feeling of inferiority. He suggested, for example, that a short man with an aggressive personality may be compensating for a feeling of inferiority.
In contrast to Jung and Freud, both of whom placed great emphasis on unconscious inner forces in human development, Adler was more concerned with the influence of social experience. Adler was also the first to point out the significance of a child's order of birth in personality development.
A follower who did not break from Freud, the Austrian psycho- analyst Otto Rank, suggested that the basis of anxiety neurosis is a psychological trauma occurring during birth. His theories had a great influence on delivery-room practices; out of concern for the effect of excessive stimuli on newborns, noise and light levels were reduced.
5
Kubie S. Lawrence
Дата добавления: 2019-01-14; просмотров: 665; Мы поможем в написании вашей работы! |
Мы поможем в написании ваших работ!