Analytical and synthetical languages
2.It is a verycommon statement that English is an analytical language. Modern Russian is synthetical. The chief features characterizing an analytical language are as follows:
a) comparatively few grammatical inflections (viz., case inflections in N, Adj., Pr. & personal inflections in Verbs);
b) a sparing use of sound alternations to denote grammatical forms;
c) a wide use of prepositions to connect words in the sentence;
d) prominent use of word order to denote grammatical relations.
Grammar includes morphology and syntax. The relation between them is not so simple. We ought to distinguish between 2 angles of research:
1) the elements dealt with. From this viewpoint we divide grammatical investigation into 2 fields: Morphology and syntax.
2) The way these elements are studied. From this viewpoint we distinguish between paradigmatic and syntagmatic study. Thus we get 4 divisions:
1. a) paradigmatic morphology (=morphology)
b) syntagmatic morphology (is the study of phrases: N+N, Adj + N, V + Adv)
2. a) paradigmatic syntax.= (studies variation of one and the same sentence).
b) syntagmatic syntax (=syntax)
6.According to O . Akhmanova : M орфема (морфологическая единица) (=связанная форма) – Наименьшая, (предельная, неделимая далее без потери данного качества) и регулярно воспроизводимая согласно моделям данного языка единица системы выражения, непосредственно соотносимая с соответствующим ей элементом системы содержания (семемой).
Morpheme is the smallest, ultimate, further indivisible (without the loss of the given quality) unit of the plane of expression ( ПВ ), regularly reproduced in accordance with the patterns of the given language and directly correlated with the unit of the plane of content ( ПС ) corresponding to it.
(Инвариант :: вариант)..Введем понятие систематизированного контекста.
«Инвариантное значение формы вытекает из обозначаемого действия к точке отсчета и обнаруживается в минимальном контексте, включающем только главные члены предложения и, возможно, дополнение первое.
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Варианты значения возникают только при наличии определенного типа контекста, обычно обстоятельственных членов предложения, который мы называем систематизированным контекстом…Систематизированный контекст чрезвычайно важен именно для глагола-сказуемого, представляющего собой динамический центр предложения» [Иванова И.П.-С.53-54].
Lecture 3
The word and its morphemic structure. Types and kinds of morphemes.
Morphology as a part of grammar deals with the morphemic structure of words and their classes or parts of speech. The word is the largest unit of morphology. According to A. Smirnitsky, the morpheme is the smallest linear language unit possessing the most essential properties of a language unit, viz.: an outer form and some inner content or = meaning.
The notion of the morpheme includes the root of the word and its affixes: prefixes, suffixes and inflexions.
Morphemes may be classified according to the two main principles:
1) In accordance with the mode of their functioning morphemes may be free and bound. The free morphemes are also called “word-morphemes”, they may function as separate words. The auxiliary verbs, modal and link-verbs and postpositives (up, out, of) are free morphemes or word-morphemes.
The bound morphemes include inflexions and all the word-building morphemes, + inner inflexions and zero morphemes.
The inner inflexion is a vowel or a consonant change within a word to signal a grammatical meaning, e.g. a vowel change in the opposition ”foot” [fu:t] vs “feet [fi:t]” is an inner inflexion to signal the plural number.
The zero morphemeor the meaningful absence of the inflexion in the word form “boy”, is a zero signal of singular number, common case.
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2) In accordance with their meaning, morphemes may be classified into:
a) Lexical morphemes (= root morphemes). [These are roots of notional words. They coincide in form with underived words, e.g.: boy, nice, go] ; b) Lexico-grammatical morphemes; c) Purely grammatical morphemes.
b) Lexico-grammatical morphemes may be free and bound. Derivational suffixes and prefixes are bound morphemes as they cannot be used separately from the root of the word. Modal verbs, link-verbs, postpositives (up, off, out) are free morphemes. Lexico-grammatical morphemes may change a part of speech (to teach – teacher). They possess lexical meaning though it is a much less concrete than the lexical meaning of purely lexical morphemes, e.g. the lexical meaning of the prefix “re-“ is “to do something anew” (to write – to rewrite).
c) Purely grammatical morphemes may also be free and bound. Auxiliary verbs are usually free grammatical morphemes, while inflexionsare the bound ones.
Bound grammatical morphemes are deprived of any lexical meaning of their own, they express only grammatical meanings (of tense, case, voice) and thus express some morphological categories. E.g.: the grammatical morpheme –s in verbs represents the grammatical categories of number, person.
Inner morphemes are also referred to bound grammatical morphemes.If the existence of the zero-morpheme is admitted, it will be one more bound grammatical morpheme. Zero-morphemes are “suprasegmental morphemes” just like word-stress is a suprasegmental word-building morpheme (E.g.: to ex’port (v) – ‘export (n). According to Prof. M.Y. Blokh, discontinuous grammatical morphemes of the kind:(has …en) may be called semi-bound morphemes.
There are also morphs and allomorphs. In speech morphsexist in the form of allomorphs. According to Prof. L.S. Barkhudarov,a statistically predominant variant of a morpheme should be called a morph, (e.g. –ed and –d are two allomorphs of the same grammaticalmorpheme but the allomorph –ed is the statistically predominant variant of the morpheme (i.e. a morph).
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There are synthetic and analytical grammatical forms. Synthetic forms are such word-forms in which the lexical and the grammatical morphemes are synthesized in one word, e.g. boy-s. Analytical forms of the word are those which consist of a root morpheme and one or more grammatical word-morphemes, e.g.: we shall go.
There are also suppletive grammatical forms, i.e. forms built of different roots, e.g.: go-went.
Some morphemes are homonymic: the grammaticalmorpheme –s may express the grammatical meaning of plural number (for nouns), or the meaning of the third person, singular (for verbs).
Some morphemes are polysemantic: they express several grammatical meanings at a time, e.g.: the inflexion –s in the word-form “he read-s” signals the meanings of
a) singularity; b) third person; c) common aspect; d) indicative mood; e) non-perfect.
Lecture 4
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