Colonial Period and The Eighteenth-Nineteenth Century



Painting in American colonial period consisted mainly of portraits. John Smibert, America's first well-trained artist, landed at Newport in 1729. Robert Feke painted the beauty of the aristocratic yearnings of Colonial society. Benjamin West (1738 - 1820) was a Neoclassicalpainter; West emerged as Europe's foremost history painter, dropping the allegorical trappings from classical antiquity that had been the norm and basing his work on historical research. [2] Benjamin West had an important leadership and influence on later artists; he had a long list of American students that later became famous painters.

Charles Willson Peale was the patriarch of the The Peale Family, the First Family of American art; portrait painter, Charles Willson Peale exerted a major influence on American painting through his own work and that of his sons, brothers and nieces; Rembrandt Peale, his son, was also a remarkable painter; they contributed in a large way to the growth of American artistic interests and institutions.

Gilbert Stuart and John Singleton Copley painted emblematic portraits. Stuart, who studied with Benjamin West in London, revitalized the concept of "Grand Manner" portraiture; his Skater is invigorated with a sense of immediacy and activity. John Trumbull is known as the artist of the American Revolution.

When the Revolutionary War ended in 1783, artists sought to create a distinctive environment for the ideals of liberty. As nineteenth-century Americans sought an appropriate vehicle to express their national zeal, artists turned to images of the land. Ibidem

The Nineteenth Century

Portraiture was also important but landscapes and folk customs began to express in this period. The first painting school of American art was the Hudson River of landscape painters (The Hudson River School style involved carefully detailed paintings with romantic, almost glowing lighting); Asher Brown Durand (1796-1886) and Thomas Cole (1801-1848) were prominent artists of this School. Frederic Edwin Church (1826 – 1900) was also a landscape painter. He was a central figure in this Hudson River School. Albert Bierstadt was also part of the Hudson River School (not an institution but rather an informal group of like-minded painters). George Caleb Bingham (1811-1879), artist of Missouri and the American Frontier, is best known for his genre scenes. His artworks include portrait, genre, landscape, and history painting but Portraiture was by far George’s most prolific artistic genre. His paintings rank among the nation’s greatest art treasures. [3]William Morris Hunt (1824 – 1879) a Barbizon School/Tonalist painter trained with Jean-François Millet started the American Barbizon School in Boston.

Harvard's older portrait was painted by Emanuel Leutze (1816-1868), whose most famous work might be Washington Crossing the Delaware (1850); This painting is considered the most famous icon of American history; it has become one of the best known and most extensively published images in American history. [1][2]

Thomas Moran (1837 – 1926), a member of The Hudson River School, created hundreds of open-air artworks. Moran is considered the premier painter of Yellowstone and the Grand Canyon.

In the late 1880s, Impressionism appeared in America. Theodore Robinson, Mary Cassatt, William Merritt Chase, and Childe Hassam are examples of this School. James Abbott McNeill Whistler worked mainly in Europe; he was a precursor of abstract art.

The Twentieth Century

Noted painters from this period include: William Henry Jackson, Edward Hopper, Georgia O'Keeffe, Thomas Hart Benton, Grant Wood, Henry Ossawa Tanner, Jackson Pollock, Jacob Lawrence, Alma Thomas, Sam Francis, Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, Jasper Johns, Martin Puryear, Ian Hornak and Ronnie Landfield. Willem de Kooning, was a Dutch immigrant painter; his style came to be referred as Abstract Expressionism, and The New York School. John Marin (1870-1953) was one of the first American artists to make abstract paintings.

 

The Monarchy and its Function.

The monarchy of the United Kingdom (commonly referred to as the British monarchy) is a system of government in which a hereditary monarch is the sovereign of the United Kingdom and its overseas territories; the terms British monarch and British monarchy may also mean different things in different contexts beyond the United Kingdom.

The present monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952. The Queen, the current heir apparent – Elizabeth's eldest son, Charles, Prince of Wales (known as Duke of Rothesay in Scotland) – the Queen's consort, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, and the remainder of the Royal Family, undertake various public duties in accordance with their positions; since the Magna Carta, and through the English Civil War and the Restoration, the political powers of the monarch have gradually decreased. Today, the monarch's role is constitutional, and limited to non-partisan functions such as bestowing honours. Despite this, the ultimate executive authority over the government of the United Kingdom is still, by and through, the monarch's royal prerogative. Such powers include the dissolution of parliament, and the making of the rules for the government and regulation of the civil service and the armed forces. But these powers are only used according to the policies and procedures set down by laws enacted in Parliament and; where the laws be silent, within the constraints of convention and precedent. The monarch has a variety of official and private royal residences, and the Crown Estate, with assets worth over £7 billion, is one of the largest property owners in the world.

Following the declaration of Indian independence, George VI and his successor, Elizabeth II, adopted the title Head of the Commonwealth. Besides reigning in the UK, Queen Elizabeth II also serves as head of state for 15 other Commonwealth countries, putting the United Kingdom in a personal union relationship with those other countries. This developed from the former colonial relationship of these countries to Britain, but these countries are now independent and the monarchy of each is legally distinct.

Monarchical lineage

The British monarchy can trace its institutional lineage back to the kings of the Angles and the early Scottish kings. By the year 1000, the petty kingdoms of early medieval Britain had resolved into the kingdoms of England and Scotland. The last Anglo-Saxon monarch (Harold II) was defeated and killed in the Norman invasion of 1066 and the English monarchy passed to the Norman conquerors. From 1603, when the Scottish king James VI inherited the English throne as James I, both kingdoms were ruled by a single monarch. From 1649 to 1660, the tradition of monarchy was broken by the republican Commonwealth of England that followed the War of the Three Kingdoms. In 1707 the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to create the Kingdom of Great Britain and, in 1801, the Kingdom of Ireland became joined to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Most of Ireland seceded from the Union in 1922 as the Irish Free State, but in law the Monarch remained sovereign there until 1949.

Constitutional role

In the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom political power is ultimately exercised by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, of which the Sovereign is a non-partisan component. Political power is exercised by the House of Lords and the House of Commons, and by the Prime Minister and the Cabinet. The monarchy is a constitutional one; the Sovereign's role is limited to non-partisan functions such as granting honours. This role has been recognised since the 19th century; in The English Constitution (1867) Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy as the "dignified part" rather than the "efficient part" of government. The sovereign is the Supreme Governor of the established Church of England, although spiritual leadership of the Church is the responsibility of the Archbishop of Canterbury.

Whenever necessary, the Sovereign is responsible for appointing a new Prime Minister (with an option to appoint none at all, which, politically, is extremely unlikely); the appointment is formalised at a ceremony known as Kissing Hands. In accordance with unwritten constitutional conventions, the Sovereign must appoint the individual most likely to maintain the support of the House of Commons, usually the leader of the party that has a majority in that House. If no party has a majority (an unusual occurrence, given the United Kingdom's First Past the Post electoral system), two or more groups may form a coalition, whose agreed leader is then appointed Prime Minister. In a " hung parliament", in which no party or coalition holds a majority, the monarch has an increased degree of latitude in his or her choice of Prime Minister, but the individual most likely to command the support of the Commons, usually the leader of the largest party, must be appointed. For example, following the February 1974 general election, after failed negotiations betweenEdward Heath and Liberal leader Jeremy Thorpe, Heath resigned and Harold Wilson was appointed Prime Minister although his Labour Party did not have a majority. According toLascelles Principles, if a minority government tried to dissolve Parliament to call an election early to strengthen its position, the monarch could refuse and allow opposition parties to form a coalition government. Harold Wilson's February 1974 minority government called an early election in October 1974, which gave it a small majority.

The Sovereign appoints and dismisses Cabinet and other ministers, on the Prime Minister's advice — in practice, the Prime Minister, and not the Sovereign, exercises control over the composition of the Cabinet. The monarch may in theory unilaterally dismiss a Prime Minister, but convention and precedent tightly restrict such an action. The last monarch to remove a Prime Minister was William IV, who dismissed Lord Melbourne in 1834. In practice, a Prime Minister's term comes to an end only with death, resignation or electoral defeat.

The monarch holds a weekly audience with the Prime Minister and regular audiences with other members of the Cabinet. The monarch may express his or her views, but, as a constitutional ruler, must ultimately accept the Prime Minister's and Cabinet's decisions (subject to the Crown's authority to appoint a new Prime Minister and ministers, itself limited by convention). Walter Bagehot, the 19th-century constitutional writer, summarised this concept: "the Sovereign has, under a constitutional monarchy ... three rights — the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, the right to warn."

Any member of the Cabinet who wishes to be absent from the United Kingdom for any reason, except for official visits to European Union or NATO member countries, must seek both the Prime Minister's and the Queen's approval to leave the country, and must at the same time inform "Her Majesty ... of the arrangements made for the administration of the Minister's Department during his or her absence".

The monarch has a similar relationship with the devolved governments of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The Sovereign appoints the First Minister of Scotland on the nomination of the Scottish Parliament. The First Minister of Wales is nominated by the National Assembly for Wales and appointed upon approval by the Sovereign. In Scottish matters, the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Scottish Government. However, as devolution is more limited in Wales, the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet of the United Kingdom in Welsh matters. The Sovereign can strike out any Northern Ireland law, although voted by the Assembly, if deemed unconstitutional by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland.

The Sovereign is the Head of State in the United Kingdom. Oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen, not to Parliament or to the nation. Moreover, God Save the Queen (or God Save the King) is the British national anthem. The monarch's visage appears on postage stamps, on coins, and on banknotes issued by the Bank of England. Banknotes issued by other British banks, such as the Bank of Scotland and the Ulster Bank, do not depict the Sovereign.

At present the British royal family is headed by Queen Elizabeth. When the Queen was born on the 21st of April 1926, her grandfather, King George V, was on the throne and her uncle was his heir. The death of her grandfather and the abdication of her uncle brought her father to the throne as King George VI.

As a child she studied constitutional history and law as well as art and music. In addition she learned to ride and acquired her enthusiasm for horses. As she grew older she began to take part in public life, making her first broadcast at the age of 14.

The marriage of the young Princess Elizabeth to Philip, Duke of Edinburgh took place in November 1947. She came to the throne after her father's death in 1952 and was crowned in Westminster Abbey in June 1953.

Among Queen Elizabeth's many duties are the regular visits she makes to foreign countries, and especially those of the Commonwealth, whose interests and welfare are very important to her. The Queen has allowed the BBC to make a documentary film about the every day of the royal family. She also started the tradition of the "walkabout", an informal feature of an otherwise formal royal visit, when she walks among the public crowds and stops to talk to some people.

The annual Christmas broadcast made by the Queen on radio and television has become a traditional and popular feature of the season, and there were widespread celebrations and special programmes of events in 1977 to mark her Silver Jubilee.

The Queen's husband, Duke of Edinburgh, was born in 1926 and served in the Royal Navy. He takes a great deal of interest in industry, in the achievements of young people (he founded Duke of Edinburgh's Award Scheme in 1956) and in saving raise wild animals from extinction.

The Queen's heir is Charles, Prince of Wales, who was born in 1948, married Lady Diana Spencer and has two children, Prince William and Prince Harry. The Prince of Wales is well-known as a keen promoter of British interests.

In recent years he has become outspoken on such controversial topics as modern architecture, violence in films and on television, and the standard of English teaching in schools. His wife Diana, Princess of Wales (often called in mass media Princess Di), won the affection of many people by her modesty, shyness and beauty. Unfortunately, she died in a car accident in August, 1997.

The Queen's other children are Princess Anne (born in 1950), Prince Andrew (born in 1960) and Prince Edward (born in 1964). Anne, Princess Royal, has acquired a reputation for being arrogant, but in recent years has become quite popular with the general public.

The Queen is widely known for her interest in horses and horse-racing. She is now president of the Save the Children Fund, Chancellor of the University of London and carries out many public engagements.

Prince Andrew, Duke of York, served as a helicopter pilot in the Royal Navy. In 1986 he married Miss Sarah Ferguson (Fergie, for short) and has two daughters.

Prince Edward is keen on the theatre. This interest began while he was at university. He quit the Royal Marines, and is now pursuing a career with a theatrical company.

The Queen Mother, the widow of the late King George VI, celebrated her one hundred birthday in 2 000 and died in 2002. The Queen's only sister, Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon, is well-known for her charity work.

 

 

American theatre.

The American theatre is over two hundred years old, but American drama became American only in the 20* century when such prominent playwrights as Eugene O’Neill, Robert Sherwood and others began their creative work. The centre of the American theatrical world is in a section of New York City on and near Broadway. It is the aim of every talented actor, producer and playwright to get to Broadway. Success on Broadway guarantees success elsewhere.

Broadway is a wide avenue cutting through New York’s Manhatten Island as a diagonal. Broadway is a mass of glittering lights and advertising signs. This centre of theatrical life still keeps its leading position but the taste of the audience has changed. People show more interest about entertaining shows, musicals, comedies than about serious drama. Experimental plays have not been successful on Broadway.

Theatre-goers come mostly from the society who can afford the price of the ticket. A visit to Broadway has become a sign of prestige. Unlike other countries, there is no national subsidized theatre in the United States. The Broadway theatre is a truly commercial enterprise and to ensure success the producer must get a big famous star under contract. As usual, Broadway welcomed theatrical productions from abroad.

Few would deny that Broadway remains the prima donna of the American theatrical experience, a powerful magnet for the country’s finest performers. But in the short period of few decades something has changed. Regional theatres across the United States have slowly challenged the might of Broadway regularly sending the best of their seasons to New York. There are 200 regional theatres in 40 states operate under the contracts from the theatrical unions. Approximately 200professional theatres in the United Stated are devoted to children’s productions.

America’s most important playwrights are considered to be Eugene O’Neill, Lilian Hellman, Tennessee Williams, Arthur Miller, Adwars Albee. Eugene O’Neill was the first important American playwright of serious , nonmusical drama. He received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1936, and he was the only dramatist to win the Pulitzer Prize in drama four times.

The roots of the Ukrainian national theatre are traced to old Slave myths. The first actors, called “skomorokhi”, appeared in the 11* century, and their performances took the form of “balahan” or “vertep”. Such performances for people’s enjoyment made a basis for national Ukrainian theatre.

At the age of Enlightenment folk dramas, carnivals were very popular. The genre of tragedy is the oldest of all but later comedies, operettas, variety shows appeared on the stage. P. Saksagansky and N.Sadovsky, Natalia Uzhviy, Boris Gmirya, Zoya Gaidai were the founders of the national Ukrainian theatre.

At present Ukraine operates 91 drama companies, including academic theatres in Kyiv, Kharkiv, Lviv and Simpheropol, musical drama and puppet theatres in all the regional cities of Ukraine, Youth Theatres in Kyiv, Kharkiv, Zaporizhya and Lviv; musical comedies in Kyiv, Kharkiv and Odessa. Theatre companies of our country show plays by Ukrainian and foreign playwrights. Gogol’s “Christmas Night” Bulgakov’s “The Master and Margarita”, Franko’s “Stolen Happiness”, Chekhov’s “Cherry Orchard”, Miller’s “The Price” are popular at our theatres.

Among the stars of the Ukrainian stage are Bohdan Stupka, Konstantin Stepankov, Mikhail Golubovich, Ada Rogovtseva, Valeria Zaklunnaya and many others. Masters of stage creatively developed and enriched the best achievements of the theatrical art.

Ukrainian Ballet is well-known in the world. The Kyiv Ballet troupe has triumphantly toured the USA, Canada, Japan, European and South American countries. People in many countries were greatly impressed by the perfect techniques and dramatic talent of the Ukrainian ballet dancers.


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