Primary and Secondary education
Twelve million children attend about 40.000 schools in Britain. Education in Great Britain is compulsory and free for all children between the ages of 5 and 16. There are many children who attend a nursery school from the age of 3, but it is not compulsory. In nursery schools they learn some elementary things such as numbers, colours, and letters. Apart from that, babies play, have lunch and sleep there. Whatever they do, there is always someone keeping an eye on them.
The basic features of the British educational system are the following: 1) education is compulsory from 5 to 16; 2) the academic year usually begins in September and runs to early July; it has 3 terms, divided by the Christmas and Easter holidays. In addition, all schools have a ’half-term holiday’, lasting a few days or a week, in the middle of each term; 3) compulsory education is free of charge, but parents may spend money on educating their children if they want to; 4) there are three stages of education. Children move from the first stage (primary) to the second stage (secondary) at around the age of eleven or twelve. The third stage is ’further’ education at university or college.
At the age of 5 children go to infant school which is the first stage of primary education. From 7 to 11 they attend junior schools, the second stage of primary education. In primary school children are taught the so-called 3R’s: reading, writing and arithmetic.
There are 3 types of state secondary schools in Great Britain. They are:
1) comprehensive schools, which take pupils of all abilities without exams. In such schools pupils are often put into certain sets or groups, which are formed according to their abilities for technical or humanitarian subjects. Almost all senior pupils (around 90 per cent) go there;
2) grammar schools, which give secondary education of a very high standard. Entrance is based on the test of ability, usually at 11. Grammar schools are single sexed schools;
3) modern schools, which don't prepare pupils for universities. Education in such schools gives good prospects for practical jobs.
The regular secondary schools offer 7 years of schooling, with students from 11 to 18 years of age. The last two years (16–18) maybe spent in a separate sixth form college, which concentrates on career training.
Between the ages of 14 and 16, pupils study for their GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education) exams. Pupils must take English Language, Maths, and Science for GCSE, as well as half GCSE in a foreign language and Technology. In addition, they must also be taught Physical Education, Religious Education and Sex Education, although they do not take exams in these subjects.
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Those who get good GCSE grades can stay at their school for another two years, if it has a sixth form and teaches the desired subjects, and then take ’A’ level (Advanced Level) exams. Otherwise they have to leave their school and go to a sixth-form college or college of further education. Further education colleges have strong ties with commerce and industry and offer courses in engineering, cooking or hairdressing.
The GCE Advanced (A) level is normally taken after a further two years of study. Good A’ level results in at least 2 subjects are necessary to get a place at a university. Universities choose their students after interviews. There are about 100 universities in Britain. The most famous of them are Oxford and Cambridge Universities.
About seven per cent of students go to private schools, where parents have to pay for their children. The most expensive private schools are called public schools. Most of these are single-sex boarding schools and students can live there during term-time.
Public (private)schools in the UK
A public school, in common British usage, is a school which is usually prestigious and historic, which charges fees, does not arbitrarily restrict admissions, and is financed by bodies other than the state, commonly as a private charitable trust. There are also about 500 private schools in Great Britain. Most of these schools are boarding ones, where children live as well as study. Education in such schools is very expensive, that's why only 5 per cent of schoolchildren attend them. Private schools are also called preparatory (for children up to 13 years old) and public schools (for pupils from 13 to 18 years old). Any pupil can enter the best university of the country after leaving this school. The most famous British public schools are Eton, Harrow and Winchester.
The restoration of monarchy
The Restoration of the English monarchy began in 1660 when the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were all restored under Charles II after the Interregnum that followed the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The term Restoration is used to describe both the actual event by which the monarchy was restored, and the period of several years afterwards in which a new political settlement was established.[1] It is very often used to cover the whole reign of Charles II (1660–1685) and often the brief reign of his younger brother James II (1685–1688).
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The Commonwealth
The next eleven years saw the rule of the Commonwealth (1649-60). Ostensibly Parliament was in control, but the real power lay with Cromwell and the army. It was just as well that the army was still standing, for Charles' son landed in Scotland, had himself declared Charles II, and invaded England. He was defeated by Cromwell at Worcester (1650) and forced to hide in a tree to avoid capture, before successfully fleeing to France.
The Protectorate
Eventually the conflict between Cromwell and Parliament came to a head with Cromwell establishing the Protectorate (1653-58). This was essentially a monarchy by another name, with Cromwell at its head. His rule was a time of rigid social and religious laws on radical Protestant lines.
Cromwell's government divided the country into 11 districts, each under a major general, who were responsible not only for tax collection and justice, but for guarding public morality as well. Church attendance was compulsory. Horse racing and cockfights were banned, plays were prohibited, gambling dens and brothels were closed, as were many alehouses. Drunkenness and blasphemy were harshly dealt with. People being people, these measures were extremely unpopular.
Cromwell had a bodyguard of 160 men during the Protectorate. In the end he was just as dictatorial and autocratic as Charles and James had been. He called Parliament when he needed money and dismissed it when it argued. On Cromwell's death his son, Richard, tried to carry on as Lord Protector (1658-59), but he was not the forceful character that his father had been.
The results of the Commonwealth and the Protectorate confirmed in the English a hatred of military rule and the severe Puritanism associated with it. From this point on Parliament opposed Puritanism vigourously.
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In 1660 Parliament offered to restore the monarchy if Charles would agree to concessions for religious toleration and a general amnesty. Charles was not as hard-headed as his father, and he agreed to the proposals. He returned to London on a wave of popular support to be crowned Charles II (1660-85).
Charles' closest five advisors had initials which formed the word "Cabal", which came to mean a secret association because they were suspected to be the real power behind the throne.The Restoration was notable for a relaxation of the strict Puritan morality of the previous decades. Theatre, sports, and dancing were revived. Charles' court was notable for its revelry and licentiousness.While Charles was enjoying his new court, he was less than successful internationally.The English fought a losing naval war with the Dutch, and England's presence on the high seas had never been so low.
Changes in Government
Under Charles II there was a general move towards a cabinet style of government. Groups formed which were the fore-runners of the later Tories (the court party, supporting royal prerogative), and the Whigs (the country party, supporting Parliamentary rights in moderation). The name "Whigs" came from the Whiggamores, Scottish rebels against the king, while the "Tories" were named after Catholic royalist rebels in Ireland.
Social conditions during the 17th century were abysmal. Laws were harsh, and religious non-conformists and Catholics faced heavy discrimination. On the other hand, things were so much better in England than elsewhere in Europe that England was an example of model government to such continental commentators as Voltaire and Montesquieu. Perspective is everything.
Higher education in Britain
After finishing secondary school or college you can apply to a university, polytechnic, college of education or you can continue to study in a college of further education.There are 90 universities and 60 other higher educational institutions in Great Britain. Many big cities have a university and a college of higher education
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There are the following main types of universities in Great Britain: ancient, Redbrick and New. There is also Open University.
The first group is ancient universities: Oxford and Cambridge. They were founded in 12th and 13th centuries. They are the oldest and the most famous universities in Great Britain. They have a lot of rules and traditions. They have a collegiate system. It means that a university is a federation of colleges. Now Cambridge consists of 20 colleges and Oxford consists of 48 colleges. Each college is largely independent: it has its own staff of teachers, a separate building, its own financing and individual curricula. It organizes term exams, but university is responsible for final exams and for awarding degrees to college students. The next tradition is that some colleges are only for men and others – only for women students. There are also coeducational colleges. The third tradition is that the university tutors teach students one-to-one or in very small groups. Such lessons are called tutorials.
Most universities in Great Britain are national universities. That is UK government pays three quarters of tuition fee and a student pays only one quarter of it. If the student’s family income is low the government helps him (her) with the grant. There are also some private universities in Great Britain (for example, Westminster University). Education in such universities is very expensive.
Let’s speak about the second type of UK universities – Redbrick universities. The period of foundation of Redbrick universities is between 1850 and 1930.They have a name “Redbrick” because the material used for their construction was red brick. The most famous Redbrick university is London University. It is a federation of 44 schools and institutes. The number of its internal students is over 40 000 and it has also a great number of external students, who come to London only for examinations.
The next type is New Universities. New Universities were founded after the Second World War, as a result of Industrial Revolution. After the Second World War UK began to develop its industries very quickly. British plants and factories needed a lot of qualified specialists. That’s why a number of New Universities appeared in large industrial cities, such as Manchester, Liverpool, Glasgow and others.
Now we shall say some words about the degrees you can get at British higher schools. After three or four years of study you can get a Bachelor’s Degree (usually BA=Bachelor of Arts or BS=Bachelor of Science). After one or two years of further study a student can get a Master’s Degree (MA or MS). If students wish to teach at university, they work for a higher degree, a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). Now we shall say some words about the degrees you can get at British higher schools. After three or four years of study you can get a Bachelor’s Degree (usually BA=Bachelor of Arts or BS=Bachelor of Science). After one or two years of further study a student can get a Master’s Degree (MA or MS). If students wish to teach at university, they work for a higher degree, a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD).
Modern British State System
The state system of Great Britain
Great Britain is a parliamentary monarchy. The power of the Queen is limited by the Parliament. It means that the sovereign reigns but does not rule. Britain does not have a written constitution, but a set of laws. Parliament is the most important authority in. Britain. It comprisesthe House of Commons, the House of Lords and the Monarch in her constitutional role. In reality the House of Commons is the only one of the three, which has true power.
The Monarch serves formally as head of state. But the Monarch is expected to bepolitically neutral and should not make political decisions. The present sovereign of Great Britain is Queen Elizabeth II (the second). She was crowned in Westminster Abbey in 1953.
The House of Commons has 650 elected Members of Parliament (MPs), each representing a local constituency.
They are elected by secret ballot. General elections are held every five years. The country is divided into 650 constituencies. All citizens aged 18 have the right to vote, but voting is not compulsory in Britain. The candidate polling the largest number of votes in a constituency is elected. The functions of the House of Commons are legislation and scrutiny of government activities. The House of Commons is presided over by the Speaker. The Government appoints the Speaker.
The House of Lords comprises about 1,200 peers. It is presided over by the Lord Chancellor. The House of Lords is made up of hereditary and life peers and peeresses and the two archbishops and 24 most senior bishops of the established Church of England. The House of Lords has no real power. It acts rather as an advisory council.
There are few political parties in Great Britain thanks to the British electoral system. They are the Conservative Party, the Labour Party and the Liberal DemocraticAlliance. Each political party puts up one candidate for each constituency. The one who wins the most votes is elected MP for that area. The party which wins the most seats in Parliament forms the Government. Its leader becomes the Prime Minister. As head of the Government the Prime Minister appoints ministers, of whom about 20 are in the Cabinet — the senior group which takes major policy decisions. Ministers are collectively responsible for government decisions and individually responsible for their own departments.
The second largest party forms the official Opposition, with its own leader and 'shadow cabinet'. The Opposition has a duty to criticise government policies and to present an alternative programme.
The new bills are introduced and debated in the House of Commons. If the majority of the members are in favour of a bill it goes to the House of Lords to be debated. The House of Lords has the right to reject a new bill twice. But after two rejections they are obliged to accept it. And finally the bill goes to the Monarch to be signed. Only then it becomes a law.
Parliament is responsible for British national policy. Much legislation applies through out Britain. England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland have their own legal systems with differences in law and practice.
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