Употребление инфинитива/ герундия
1. Герундий — очень употребительная форма английского глагола, не имеющая постоянного соответствия в русском языке. Эта своеобразная форма глагола обладает одновременно не только свойствами глагола, но и существительного. На русский язык герундий переводится по-разному:
неопределенной формой глагола, отглагольным существительным, деепричастием, придаточным предложением.
По внешней форме герундий полностью совпадает с причастием I: seeing, deciding и т. и.
2. Герундий употребляется после следующих глаголов:
like, love, enjoy, hate, suggest, mind, stop, finish:
I enjoy dancing. Мне нравится танцевать.
Не finished translating the text.
On закончил переводить текст.
They enjoywatching funny films.
Они любят смотреть смешные фильмы.
4. Инфинитив(неопределённая форма глагола) обычно используется после глаголов:
want, need, plan, decide, offer, refuse, hope, expect, promise, try, forget, learn, конструкций would like, would love, would hate, would prefer:
I hope to go to university next year. Я надеюсь поступить в университет в следующем году.
He would like to meet you. Он хотел бы с тобой встретиться.
После глаголов start, begin, continue, preferможет употребляться как инфинитив, так и герундий:
It started raining. Начался дождь.
It startedto rain. Начался дождь.
Причастия I, II.
Причастие – это неличная форма английского глагола, которая обладает свойствами глагола, наречия и прилагательного.
Английские причастия делятся на причастие настоящего времени (Participle I) и причастие прошедшего времени (Participle II).
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Причастие настоящего времени обозначает действие, проистекающее одновременно с действием, выраженным сказуемым:
Look at the man crossingthe street.
Взгляни на человека, переходящего улицу.
Причастие настоящего времени образуется при помощи окончания -ing:
to learn – learning
to speak – speaking
Причастие настоящего времени употребляется для образования продолженных времён:
They are watchinga new film now.
Сейчас они смотрят новый фильм.
They were watchinga new film at that time last night.
Они смотрели новый фильм в это время вчера вечером.
They will be watchinga new film at this time tomorrow.
Они будут смотреть новый фильм в это время завтра.
Причастие прошедшего времени – это тоже неличная форма глагола, также имеющая свойства глагола, прилагательного и наречия. Но в отличие от причастия настоящего времени, причастие прошедшего времени имеет лишь одну неизменяемую форму, по сути, это третья форма глагола. Причастие прошедшего времени в английском языке соответствует русскому cтрадательному причастию:
to give (давать) - given (данный)
to teach (обучать) - taught (обученный)
to break (ломать) - broken (сломанный)
Deliveredgoods will be stored in our warehouse.
Доставленные товары будут храниться на нашем складе.
Причастие прошедшего времени образуетсятак же, как и временная форма Past Simple, то есть при помощи окончания -ed. Для неправильных английских глаголов в таком случае нужно использовать их «третью» форму:
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look – looked – looked
do – did – done
Причастие прошедшего времени (Participle II) употребляетсядля образования совершённых (перфектных) времён. Эти времена образуются при помощи вспомогательного глагола have, has, had, will have и третьей формы глагола, т.е. причастия прошедшего времени.
Recently they have watched a new film. (Present Perfect)
Они недавно посмотрели новый фильм.
They had watched a new film before I came. (Past Perfect)
Они посмотрели новый фильм до того, как я пришёл.
They will have finished watching a new film by the time I come. (Future Perfect)
Они закончат смотреть новый фильм к тому времени, как я приду.
Причастие прошедшего времени также употребляется для образования страдательного залога:
The museum was opened only last year.
Музей был открыт только в прошлом году.
Flowers are grown almost in any part of the world.
Цветы выращивают почти в любой части света.
Примеры текстов для перевода.
Why do We Need Law?
Almost everything we do is governed by some set of rules. There are rules
for games, for social clubs, for sports and for adults in the workplace. There
are also rules imposed by morality and custom that play an important role in
telling us what we should and should not do. However, some rules — those
made by the state or the courts — are called “laws”. Laws resemble morality
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because they are designed to control or alter our behaviour. But unlike rules
of morality, laws are enforced by the courts; if you break a law — whether
you like that law or not — you may be forced to pay a fine, pay damages, or
go to prison.
Why are some rules so special that they are made into laws? Why do
we need rules that everyone must obey? In short, what is the purpose of
law?
If we did not live in a structured society with other people, laws would
not be necessary. We would simply do as we please, with little regard for
others. But ever since individuals began to associate with other people — to
live in society — laws have been the glue that has kept society together. For
example, the law in our country states that we must drive our cars on the
right-hand side of a two-way street. If people were allowed to choose at
random which side of the street to drive on, driving would be dangerous and
chaotic. Laws regulating our business affairs help to ensure that people keep
their promises. Laws against criminal conduct help to safeguard our personal
property and our lives.
Legal Profession
A lawyer is a person learned in law. A lawyer, also known as an attorney,
a counselor, a solicitor, a barrister or an advocate, is an individual
licensed by the state to engage in the practice of law and advise clients on
legal matters. Lawyers act as both advocates and advisors on behalf of their
clients.
The role of the lawyer varies significantly across legal jurisdictions, and
therefore can be treated in only the most general terms. Lawyers’ roles vary
greatly, depending upon their practice environment and field of specialization.
In most countries there is only one legal profession. This means that all
the lawyers have roughly the same professional education leading to the
same legal qualifications, and they are permitted to do all the legal work.
In England the system is different. Here the profession is divided into
two types of lawyers, called solicitors and barristers. Solicitors and barristers
are both qualified lawyers, but they have different legal training; they take
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different examinations to qualify; and once they have qualified, they usually
do different types of legal work.
Many solicitors deal with a range of legal work: preparing cases to be
tried in the civil or criminal courts; giving legal advice in the field of business
and drawing up contracts; making all the legal arrangements for the buying
and selling of land or houses; assisting employees and employers; making
wills.
Barristers are mainly “courtroom lawyers” who actually conduct cases
in court. Unlike solicitors, they have rights of audience (rights to appear) in
any court of the land, and so barristers are those lawyers who appear in the
more difficult cases in the higher courts.
Legislation in Russia
Under the doctrine of the separation of powers legislation is regarded as
one of the three main functions of government. Those who have the formal
power to create legislation are known as legislators. Legislation can have
many purposes: to regulate, to authorize, to proscribe, to provide funds, to
sanction, to grant, to declare or to restrict.
The Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation is the lawmaking body
of the Russian Federation, according to the Constitution of the Russian
Federation, 1993. It consists of the State Duma, which is the lower house,
and the Federation Council, which is the upper house. Both houses are
located in Moscow.
The State Duma has special powers enumerated by the Constitution of
Russia. The State Duma adopts decrees on issues referred to its authority by the
Constitution of the Russian Federation. Decrees of the State Duma are
adopted by a majority of the total number of deputies of the State Duma.
The Federation Council together with the State Duma are charged with drafting and voting on laws.
To pass the law more than half of senators of the Federation Council
must vote for it. When considering federal constitutional laws, three-fourths
of the Council’s votes are required for passage.
All bills must first be considered by the State Duma. Upon adoption by a
majority of the full State Duma membership, a draft law is considered by the
Federation Council, which has fourteen days to place the bill on its calendar.
The Federation Council cannot make amendments to bills passed by the
Duma and can either approve or reject them. If the Federation Council rejects
a bill passed by the State Duma, the two chambers may form a conciliation
commission to work out a compromise version of the legislation.
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