Comparative Chart of Vowel Phonemes in Canadian English, General American and RP
| CE | GA | RP | Examples |
| i | i | к | Seat |
| e, e | e | e, e | set |
| ж | & | sat | |
| i | i | i | sit |
| зг | 3r | a: | bird, Hurry |
| эг, a | Э | э | centre, data |
| a | a | и | dot |
| a, & | (ar)ae | а: | dance |
| э | 0 | э: | sort, shawl |
| Ц | и | boot | |
| л | л | л | but |
| V | и | и | book |
| ei | er | ei | bake |
| SI | ai | ai | bike |
| ли | au | au | now |
| ou | ou | ou | go |
| DI | 01 | boy | |
| (ir) | (ir)1 | 1Э | here |
| (er) | (6Г) | еэ | there |
| (or) | (ar) | ээ | more |
| (иг) | (or) | иэ | sure |
1 I»j. lea], [09], Eu»] correspond to the QA дпи СЕ (»), [srj. [srj,
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There are three main types distinguished within RP pronunciation; 1) conservative — used by older generation, by certain professions or social groups, 2) the general RP used by the BBC, and 3) the advanced RP, used by young people, or in some circles for prestige purposes.
The main differences between standard and advanced RP are the following:
1) The closing diphthongs are pronounced with the weakened or
lost glide, e. g.
/tel/ instead of /teil/
/ou/ turns into /a:/, e. g. /Ьз:п/ instead of /boim/ /ai/ turns into /a3/ or /a/, e. g. /ba3d/, /bad/ instead of /baid/ /аи/ turns into /aa/, or /a/, e. g. /taa/, or /t<t/ instead of Даиз/ /oi/ turns into /o:/, e. g. /bo:/ instead of /boi/ {tall, call are exceptions)
2) The centring diphthongs are levelled with monophthongs:
/оэ/—/о:/
/ia/, /бэ/ turn into /e:/ or long /ж/, е- g. bared, fared, pared are pronounced as /bs:d/, /fs:d/, /pe:d/
/is/ is opposed to /еэ/ in open syllables, e. g. hear—hair, fear—fair. This opposition does not occur before voiceless, or before /1/.
/л/ turns into /a/, e. g. /san/ instead oi /sAn/
3) The glottal stop is used between words and syllables, e. g»
/ni?jehti/, /6i >?a:nt/, /Oet'?eib1/—that table.
4) /r/ is pronounced like the GA retroflex /r/.
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Questions
1. What is standard pronunciation? 2. What are the main differences between the RP and GA a) systems of consonants; b) system^ of vowels; c) accentual structure and intonation? 3, What is "advanced" RP?
Exercises
1. Read the words below according to the GA standard.
• farm, bird, sister, leave, let, late, berry, merry, very, Bett у, .bottle* little, city, certainly, that one, mountain, which, what, when, due,1 new, suit, excursion, version, Persia, man, name, noun, nationa^
2. Read the words below
(a) with the vowel /i/ obscured:
will, fill, building, river, spirit, miracle, beer
(b) with the vowel lei lower than the RP /e/:
bell, well, best, lest, nest, hell
jc) with the vowel /el diphthongized /W, /a»/:
bet, get,-detr met,.neck,-check,iet; -Ш
3. Read the words below
(a) with the OA Ы more frönt arid longer than the RP /je/:
ask, dance, last, answer,' half, aunt
(b) with the RP /se/ nasalized before I A, m, n/:
bad, man, land, answer
4. Read the words below according to the GA standard.
hurry PWij, current /*кзтэп1:/, courage /^idg/, worry /lW3ri/„ furrow /'{эгэи/, squirrel />skw3r3l/, stirrup /Ыэгэр/, clerk /кЬЧ?/г derby /Wbi/
5. Read the words below with the /r/-colouring terminally.
winter, perceiver, doctor, mister, sister, Webster
6. Read the words below according to the GA standard-
not, crop, dock, nod, father, palm, balm, calm
7. Read the words below according to the GA standard,
hop, rob, not, lock; doll, solve, on; frog, log, long; law, court
8- Read the words below. Compare the pronunciation of theJRP and GA diphthongs, of the Jong monophthongs /?:, a/.
gate, date, late, Kate, mate, make; radio, goat, coat; far, formr fare, bare, poor, mare, near, door
9, Read the words below. Mind the tertiary stress differences in RP and OAl
RP GA
'dictionary idictiojnary
iFerbuary >FebrU|ary
'ordinary 'ordinary
'category icateigory
•territory lterri|tcry
'cemetery 'cemetery
'monastery 'monastery
'matrimony 'matrimony
'testimony 'testimony
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'necessarily 'necessarily
'ordinarily 'ordinarily
10. Read the words below. Mind the place of primary stress on thejsecond com
ponent in RP and on the first component in GA compounds.
RP GA
'apple'source 'appleisource
'beefsteak 'beefsteak
'elseiwhere 'elsewhere
ifarraJhouse 'farmihouse
'mean'time 'meanitime
White 'House «White iHouse
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J-midf<Jay 'working 'man
'mid|day 'working
11. Read the place names below. Mind a single primary stress in RP and a primary and a tertiary stress in GA.
| GA iBirming|ham 'Bloomjbury ^kih |
RP
* Birmingham
'Bloombury
| gi iDartjinoor 'Moor | gate •Newfoundland 'Peterborough iDhi |
(Buckingham
iDartmöor
) Moorgate
'Newfoundland
'Peterborough
'Devonshire
| j <Ex(mouth iHampistead 'High|gate ^ll |
'Ex moor
'Exmouth
•Hampstead
'Highgate
| yj ' Man (Chester |
'Hollywood
'Manchester
12. Read the GA general questions with a Jailing tone (the counterpart tone
In RP would be rising).
Are you going? Does he care?
13. Read the GA casual requests with the falling tone (this intonation in RP
would suggest a command).
Come in, Sit down. Shut the door. Ojjen the book.
KEY TO EXERCISES
Exercises p. 14
1. witches /witj, -iz/, glasses /glas, -iz/, foxes /ftjks, -iz/, gases /gaes, -iz/V
judges /dgAc^, -iz/, crashes /kraj", -iz/, calves /kaf, -vz/, elves /elf, -vz/, halves
/haf, -vz/, knives /naif, -vs/, leaves /Itf, -vz/, lives /laif, -vz/, loafs /lauf, -vz/,
selves /self, -vz/, sheaves /Jif, -vz/, thieves /6l:f, -vz/, wives /waif, -vz/, wolves
/wulf, -vz/, actresses /Isektns, -iz/, hostesses /Ihaustis, -iz/, mistresses /Imistns, -iz/,
■sculptresses /IskAlptns, -iz/, waitresses /Iweitns, -iz/, lionesses /Harems, -iz/
2. begged /begd/, lived /!ivd/, opened /laupand/, travelled /Itrsevld/, cancelled
/Usensald/, compelled /kamlpeld/, recognized /Irekagnaizd/, arrived /alraivd/,
rained /rerad/, informed /mlfoimd/, stopped /stupt/, wrapped /rsept/, helpedi
/helpt/, asked /a;skt/, discussed /dislkAst/, worked /werkt/, passed /past/, shipped
/Jtpt/, packed /psekt/, looked /lukt/, nodded /InDdid/, permitted /palmitid/,,
waited /Jweitid/, expected /ikslpektid/, invented /inlventid/, rested /Irestid/,.
.loaded /llsudid/, depended /dilpendid/
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3. /Ineifcn—Insejanl/, /greiv—Ignsviti/, /pratvauk—pralvukstiv/, /zfcl—
Jzebs/, /sju(:)lprtai—sjulprenrasi/, /alkg.' — alkArsns/, /adlvais—adlvaiz/, /jus —
jt*z/, /haus—hauz/, /ikslkjirs — ikslkjua/, /dilvais—dilvaiz/, /Il^s—bz/,/kiaus —
Krauz/
4. /Jredbrest/ малиновка; /Iblitbe]/колокольчик; /Ibbsfeun/медный купорос;-
/ibmlamz/ авиационные линии, идущие с севера на юг Америки; /lbto|bDtl/
василек; /Iblaekjait/ чернорубашечник, фашист; /Iblsekfeis/ (полигр.) жирный
шрифт; /lba:dzai/ первоцвет; /lbred3n(d)tbAte/ детский, юный, незрелый;
/Ibreikipromis/ не хозяин своему слову, ненадежный человек;/fheviweit/ боксер,
Сорец тяжелого веса; /Iredbuk/ красная книга; /tbluitsbkirj/ «синий чулок»;
/iblumauz/ сорт картофеля; /Iblmkaut/ учащийся в щколе для бедных; солдат;
матрос; /Iblitjbtinit/ крестьянин; шотландец; /Ibtekhaul/^ темница.^, карцер,
ауптвахта; /Iblaäkrnss/ реквием
5, /stil/ неподвижный, спокойный; /sti:l/ сталь; /pml/ лужа, /pul/ тянуть;
/,fip/ корабль; /j"Ifр/ овца; /sit/ сидеть, /sfct/ место; /til/ наполнять, /Ш/ чув
ствовать; /liv/ жить, /liiv/ покидать; /il/ больной; /1:1/ угорь; /slip/ ошибка,
/slip/ сон; /sei/ продавать, /seil/ продажа; /Imudl/ модель, /Irraudi/ модальный;
/so:/ пила, /sau/ так, таким образом; /IpauhJV польский, /IpühJ/ лоск, глянец;
/дм/ охрана, стража, /gaid/ проводник, гид; /W8:6/ ценность, значение, /W3:s/
Худший, еще хуже; /tiu-9/ правда, /tiixs/ перемирие; /bAt/ за исключением,
кроме, /Ьа9/ ванна; /breD/ дыхание, /bredG/ ширина; /Idaian/ дневник, /Idean/
маслобойня; /sjuit/ удовлетворять, /swtt/ свита; /paltreul/ патруль, /ipetr(s)l/
венаин; /теэ/ мэр, /Imeid-sa/ майор; /raut/ бунт, волнение, /rust/ маршрут
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8. Rhythm.
9. То give particular importance to the word think.
_, . i0; (a) Tne sounds /s, J/ are repeated to express the idea of sea movement. Thls„\hIIPe helPs to Practise their differentiation.
(b) The sounds /u, ae, i, л/ are repeated in the rhyme to practise thei* pronunciation and differentiation.
.11. /bau-wau, mJiE-mjur, grAnt-grAnt, skwi:k,;tuihu:, kau-kau, kwffik-kwffikrmu;/. Onomatopoeia.
Control Tasks p. 17 3
| s/; riotroutroute /raiatrautmt/; 7. bea /^8ЭЛ1Ь1Э''; 8-, year—ear /js:(jis)—ia/; 9, quay—queue /kis—kj.is/t 10. admit — admittance /adlmit-adlmibns/; II. affect-effect /elfekt-ilfekt/t 12. draught-drought /draft—draut/,- 13. hair—hare—heir/hea—hea—ea/j 14. pour—poor — |
4. very— vary /Iveri — Ivean/; 2. personal —personnel /Ipaisnal — tpa:saln el1/;
tf. suit—suite/sjujt—swH/; 4. patrol—petrol /paltraul—Ipetral/; 5, mayor—major
/теэ- imeidsa/; 6. riot-rout-route /Iraiat—raut-mt/; 7. bear-beer
/^8ЭЬ1Э'; 8 /j(j)/ 9 /kikj/ 10 dit
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paw /ря— риэ—рх/; 15. courage—carriage /Ikindg—Iksciij/; 16. inquire — acquire /mlkwais—elkwaia/
6. wolves /wulf, -vz/, wives /waif, -vz/, lives /laif, -vz/, leaves /li:f, -vz/,
knives /naif, -vz/, sheaves /jfcf, -vz/, halves /hccf, -vz/, selves /self, -vz/, elves
/elf, -vz/, loaf /lauf, -vz/, calves /kaf, -vz/, echoes /lekau, -z/, potatoes
/palteiteu, -z/, hostesses /lhaustas, -iz/, tigresses /Itaigras, -iz/, bases /ibeisis, -Iz/,
theses /löfcsu, -fcz/, crises /Ikraisis, -i:z/, analyses /alnselasis, -fcz/, men /msn—men/,
feet /flet—fit/, geese ДИ8—gfcs/, mice /maus—raais/, baths /ba:9, -8s/, houses
/haus, -iz/, classes flalas, -iz/, boxes /bioks, -iz/, dishes /dij, -iz/, inches /ratj", -iz/,
phenomena /fclnomman, -э/, foci /Ifaukas, -sai/
б./эи—"D,3-9/;/ei—a.z—s/;/3—9/;/tu—u, z—s/; /v—S/; /i—«,v—f/; /v-f/; /v-f/
7. /fmsilt—inlsAlt/ оскорбление—оскорблять; /lübdgikt—abtdsekt/ пред
мет—возражать; /lautgau — lauttgau/ уход, выход—превосходить; /Iprudjus —
praldjt»/ продукция—предъявлять; /lsAbd3ikt —sabldgekt/ предмет—подчинять,
покорять; /lautgreuO — lautlgrau/ отросток—перерастать; /lautiei —autflei/ издер
жки, расходы—тратить, расходовать; /laut(l)9reu—autlörau/ извержение—бро
сать дальше (кого-л,); /Ipreznt—pnlzent/ подарок—преподносить, дарить;
/Iprsutest—' praltest/ протест—протестовать; /itoimsnt—talment/ мучение—
мучить
8. Alliteration, rhyme, rhythm.
9. Through the repatition of the sounds /ju:, ei, ai, A/, syllabification and
pausation.
Exercises p. 33
8. In the articulation of /p, t, k/ the vocal cords are taken apart and do not vibrate. In the production of /b, d, g/ the vocal cords are drawn close together and vibrate. In the /p, t, k/ articulation the force of exhalation is much greater than that in the production of /b, d, g/, therefore /p, t, k/ are voiceless fortis and /b, d, g/ are voiced lenis.
4. In the articulation of /m, n, rj/ the soft palate is lowered. In the articu
lation of /ij/ it is not only lowered, but forms a complete obstruction with
the back part of the tongue. The air escapes through the nasal cavity.
5. In the articulation of /b/ the noise is produced when the flow of air
breaks the complete obstruction formed by both lips, /b/ is an occlusive plosive
stop noise consonant. In the articulation of hi the noise U produced when the
flow or air passes through the incomplete obstruction formed by the lower lip
and the edge of the upper teeth, hi is a constrictive noise consonant. In the ar
ticulation of/tf/ the noise is produced by the flow of air first breaking a complete
obstruction between the tip of the tongue and the teethridge and almost imme
diately passing through the narrowing formed between the tip of the tongue
and the teethridge, /tf/ is occlusive-constricttve, or affricate.
6. In the articulation of /w/the active organs of speech are the lips, which
form a round narrowing. In the articulation of /j/ the active organ of speech is
the middle part of the tongue which is raised to the hard palate and forms a
narrowing with it, through which the air goes out rather freely. In the articu
lation of /h/ the walls of the glottis are slightly contracted when the air goes out
through it almost without any friction, /w/ is bilabial, /j/ is medlo-lingual,
/h/ is glottal.
8. The place of articulation (focus) in the production of /s/ (lenis) its between the teethridge and the front part of the tongue. There is groove-shaped depression in the front part of the tongue, through which the air passes with friction: it passes through a round narrowing. The place of articulation (focus) in the production of III is between the lower iip and the edge of the upper teeth. The air passes through this narrowing with friction. The narrowing in III articulation is more or less flat.
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10. /Iptpl/, /Ipeipa/, /lpa:p3S/, /Ipusabl/, /put/, /pens/, /Ipiti/, /pua/, /Iptsiz/, /pst/, /Ipeni/, /t«k/, /taim/, /taun/, /taiz/, /items/, /tuk/. /Iteeksiz/, /hl/, /itfctjaz/, /ta:nd/, /Itsutl/, /tus/, /tm/, /Unz/, /to:ts/, /kauid/, /Ikeaful/, /kcu/, Дик/, /IkAirad/, /küst/, /kist/, /Iksmpas/, /lke:tli/, /Ikutwig/, /IkAraits/, /)кл1э/
Exercises p. 44
4. Cardinal vowel No. 1 is pronounced with the position of the tongue
higher than for the Russian accented /и/ in such words as пили, били, лили.
Cardinal vowel No. 2 is pronounced with the position of the tongue narrower than for the Russian /e/ in the words месть, тесть.
Cardinal vowel No. 3 is similar to the Russian /э/ in the words ахо, это.
5. For instance: /t—d/bit—bid, bat—bad, debt —dead; /k~g/ duck —dug,
Dick —dig, tuck — tug; /т—д/ кот—код, вот—вод; /к—г/ док—дог; /с—з/
кос—коз, рос—роз.
П. The beginning of the articulation of (k—u>/ coincides with that of /i — u/
| /ф/ (e) /did—did/ /dd |
12. (a) /si :m—sins/ /mi:l—mil/ /mi:n—mins/ /sli.-p-slip/ /Ibst — list/ (c) /ttm—tim/ /Ш-fil/ /bto—ф
/
/3—dgtm/ /IfMin—Ifilirj/ /fct-it/ /slits—sits/ (g) /Itv-lw/ /Iffcve—Ihfti/ /Iblikan—bil/ /tj-fck—tjm/ /btt—bit/
33. (a) /bed—b£ed/ /9en—Эаеп/ /tplenti—plasn/ /els—Iffilis/ /Itete—dsede/
(c) /frentj1-—ran/ /pens—psents/ /Ibenal—Ibawau/ /Itwenti —twffin/ /I mem—Imaetg/
(e) /ded—deed/ /leni —tjelrs/ /IJeb-Jal/ /)men — Imasrid/ /Ihenn —lhaepi/
<fi) /Iheti-hajt/
/Isentral—Isaandi/ /ltjev»t-lt,fenl/ /Iraem—rneep/ /ivesl—Ivsljus/ /leldah — lenkfts/
t4. (a) /kam—клт/ /ISa—1глтп/
(b) /riid—nd/
/Stfel — Stil/
/krfck—knk/ /slfct—sht/ /sfck—sik/ (d) /sfcn—sm/ /Idtb—Idina/ /htt—hit/' /bbt—bit/
(f) /f!:Z—fiz/
/mt—mist/ /Jffcz—9is/ /sttp—stik/
(h) /ht—him/ /Glim—9in/ /sfets—sits/
/Sti:p —Stlf/
/Jptpl-pit/
(b) /hed—had/
/ten—tsen/
/(eft—Ised/
/let — siaek/
/sillekt—nllseks/ (d) /end—and/
/Sen—Seen/
/leniwei—Ifsmih/
/bed—bsek/
/Ihelpin — Ihspi/ (f) /ten—tsen/
/men—man/
/sed—ssed/
/bed—bsed/
/t Jest-t Jap/ (h) /lern —teokjbs/
/bet—bffik/
/Iplenti—iplffltfo:m/
/fiej-flffij/
(b) /ant—Unda/ /had—Hundred/
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| /dak —/ /'baskit—э'Ьлу/ /lak—flAf/ (d) /dan—dAn/ /bat —bAt/ /kat—kAt/ /matf — mAtf/ (f) /lhadli —!плш/ /1гаЭэ—rAbd/ /last—lAk/ |
/ban— IbAtn/ /Iak-Uk/ /Iklasiz— IbAsiz/
(c) /Imaval — 1шлш/ /l<tf—IIavIi/ /past —IpAzhrj/ /'makit—тлд/ /last—Плпаэп/
(e) /fanld —1лЗэг/ /Imasta — ImAgki /Istatid — IsUdi/ /lldlt
| fh) /am—1аЗэ/ /lhadli —Ih/ /Istatid—istAdid/ /matf—nutf/ /haf—strAk/ |
/last—l (g) /frans—frAnt/
/lhabaz—IrjAndnd/
/adlvccntids—al Ьллг/
/haf—tut/
/post—bAt/ (i) /stffl—stAn/
/kamt—клт/
/had—Jut/
/Itccgit—|tApans/
/mask —inAst/
| /tl;m—ten—tsen/ /hid—hed — hjed/ /lift—left-ted/ /lit—let—tek/ /m tn—Imem— |
| /torn—te:n—teen/ /кж1—кз:1—kffii/ /bad—bs:d—bsed/ /tjktj:trJtj |
| /jjr /ss—S3:—sad/ /Ikj— Ik3:tn—kset/ |
15. /bid-bed-bffid/
/nd—red—rat/
/mil—men—man/
/std—sed—saad/
/pit—pet—pat/
/bfct—bet—bast/
16. /э:1-з:1—Jffil/
/ko:t—ka:t—ka
/wD;k—W3 :k — waek/
До:-fa: —fat/
/wim—wä:m—twsen/
/то:—lms:si—таэп/
/Ian—1зт—lsed/
[Control Tasks p. 57
2. The allophones of the It! phoneme are for example: labialized in: rockr roof, rook, raw; devoiced in: present, practice, problem, protract; affricated in: tree, trim, troop, try, drain, dry, drop, draw; single tap in; throw, throng, threepence, thrust.
3. As a result of palatalization in the Russian language consonants alwy
occur аз soft phonemes and the vowel phonemes turn to the /j/+V positional"
allophone of the vowel phoneme.
4, The examples may, for instance, be as follows: complementary distribu
tion of /u/: pool, food, shoe, youth, cool, who, stoop, tube, hoof, booth, boot, rouge,
duke. (Each word is given as an example of different /u/ environment, which
cannot be observed in other words.); contrastive distribution of /u/: book—beak,
foot—fit, book—back, book—beck, book—bark, put—pot, put—port; free varia
tion in the pronunciation of the words: decapitation /fäiiktepitteij'an, dUjksept-
Iterjan/, deciduous /dilsldjuas, dtlsidjwgs/.
Exercises p. 62
1. Work of the vocal cords: voiceless fortis vs. voiced lenis: pin—bin, pack—back, pie—bye, tie—die.
Ш
Active organ of speech and the place of articulation; labial, bHabial vs. Singual forelingual apical alveolar; pen—ten, been—dean; labial bilabial vs. lingual backlingual: pole—coal, bait—gait; labial, labio-dental vs. labial bilabial: fee—we, felt—well; labial, labio-dental vs. pharyngal:/ee—he; lingual, »forelingual apical vs. lingual forelingual cacuminal: sob—rob, seal—real, .■sole—role, sip—rip, sight—right.
Manner of noise production: occlusive vs. constrictive: pity—city, pay— say, pall—sail, pole—sole, peel—seal.
Voice or noise prevalence: occlusive noise (plosives) vs. occlusive sonorants i(nasal): pine—mine, debt—net, kick—Nick; constructive noise (fricatives) vs. •constrictive sonorants: fell—well, those—rose, soul—role, sip—rip, sight—right.
The number of noise producing foci: unicentral vs. bicentral: fell—well, fee—we.
The shape of the narrowing; constrictive with a flat narrowing vs. constric-iive with a round narrowing: fail—sail, fee—see, foot—soot, fat—sat, fell—sell-
3. fa) The force of articulation rather than the presence and absence of
■voice: /p— b, t — d, к — g/,
(b) Manner or noise production: occlusive /p/ vs. constrictive HI, It — s/,
/d — z/.
Active organ of speech: bilabial /p/ vs. backlingual /k/, backlingual /k/ vs. forelingual apical /t/.
(c) Manner of noise production: occlusive /t/ vs. occlusive-constrictive /t|Y
or /d/ vs. /ds/; constrictive /J7 vs. occlusive-constrictive /tf/.
(d) Place of articulation and the nurober of foci: interdental /6/ vs. apical
Я/, alveolar /z/ vs. palato-alveolar /3/, alveolar /5/ vs. palato-alveolar /J/.
Manner of noise production: plosive /t/ vs. constrictive /3/.
(e) Position of the soft palate: oral noise /b/ vs. nasal sonorant /m/, or /d/
vs. /n/, or /g/ vs. /n/.
4. The sub-minimal pairs: marry — measure, genre — jar, teasure —
ledger. All the other pairs are minimal.
Control Tasks p. 63
1. (a) man — nap, coming — cunning, seem — seen; (b) wield — yield,
wail — Yale; (c) pat — cat, supper — succour, leap — leak
2. (a) less — yes, drew — due, clue — cue, rung — young; (b) tame —
«ame, rudder — rugger, sinner — singer, bitter — bicker, bad — bag» bat —
hack, day«,- gay
3. (a) pine — fine, bee — thee, came — lame; (b) fare — chair, work —
jerk; (c) boat — moat, seek — seen, kick — king, deed — need, vain — lane,
sick—sing; <d) fare — chair, thine —wine, vain — lane; (e) thine — wine,
lame -~ same
5. /I, r, j/ after /p/ are devoiced; after /t/ the position of the tongue for hi
in try is not so cacuminal and hi is affricated; /i/ after It/ in tube is devoiced;
/w/ after It/ in twelve is devoiced; /1, r, I, w/ after /k/ are devoiced in clean, cream,
cue, quite.
Exercises pi 67
1. (а) /в—ж/. Both are back vowels, but /13/ is an open vowel of broad variation and /a:/ is a mid vowel of broad variation.
(b) /e—se/. Both vowels are front, but /e/ is a mid-open vowel of narrow
variation and /se/ is a low (or open) vowel of broad variation.
(c) /9: — d:/, /3:/ belongs to the group of central mid-open vowels of narrow
variation, /0:/ belongs to the group of back, fully back mid-open vowels of
broad variation.
(d) /ш— u/, Both vowels belong to the group of back high vowels, but /ш/
belongs to the subgroup of narrow variation and is fully bade, whereas /u/belongs
to the subgroup of broad variation and is a back-advanced voweL
231
(e) /se—ei/, /ее/1 is a frönt open vowel o! broad variation. The nucleus of the diphthong /ei/ is /e/ which is a front mid-open vowel of narrow variation.
m /я—эи/. /о:/ is a raid fully back vowel of broad variation. The nucleus of the diphthong /эй/ is a central mid-open vowel.
3. (а) /и—ai/, /эй—аи/; (b) /в—еэ/
4. The phonemes /fc,ei, ac.a:/ in the first row of each column are the longest,
they are shorter in the second, and the shortest is the third row.
5. Stability of articulation.
Control Tasks p. 68
1. (a) /t—e—a/ bead—bed—bad, deed —dead—dad; (b) /аг —э:—a/
cab—curb—cub, bad —bird—bud, tan—turn—ton, hat—hurt—hut
2. cart—card Boz—bars don—down
wart—what caught—cot cord—cod
3. {a) known — noun, phoned — found, hay — high, bay — buy, no —
now, hoe — how, tape — type
(b) hear — hair, beer — bear, ear — air, fear — fair, rear — rare, tear — tear
Exercises p. 74
5. (a) kJ:p, ipi-siz, Itl-ffaz, Ipfcpl, Iparpas, Iksitn, ta:nd, lka:li, k<t, kxts,.
pats, pKz, teik, taim, taiz, tiaz, keuld, Iteutl, ksa, Ipranrj;
(b) til, kist, tin, Ipiti, Ipeni, tel, Items, Ipendsltan, Iksempes, Iksembnan,
Iteksi, put, tuk.'kuk, IkArants, 1кл1э, pAmpt, nlpAblik, IkAvad, tAnz, Ipnsrbl,
k-ost, Ikulidj, tos
(c) spent, stei, staun, IstAdi, stik, Istatid, (splendid, ifcslprerrans, iks'tensivh,
Ibaskit, Iklismrj, ikslplem, pleis, р!азп, Iklasiz, plem, krfck, krept, кгир, Iplaitfwm,
a3kt, kept, lukt
6. Iptpl, pet, Ipa:msn3nt', Ittiq; kamp, Ikitjan; Ibiljsdz; Iditarsnt, aildia; get,
algein, ga:lz >
ipsigativ, lepildemik; lkEeps]u:Iz; bed; ibeta; Idifrant
lpi:siz, pens, Ipeitferz; Itventi, Isikslttn, Itainirj; Ikeafli; beidz, big, (Anbilltvablr Idifrsnt, daunt; Iginrz, Igivirj, gauz
Ipiisiz, nlpead, Ipaipss; tiez, teik, te:nd; btn, big, bed, bsek, Ьэи8; aildia, dilsaidid, Ididnt, dei; get, gest, geilz, Igsuirj
Iptktjg, (ptanad, ikslpekt, pee; Kifttfcn, misted, Icttsst*, ktp, Ibaskit, vslkeijent
Iksempes; Ы, Wsaid, imjbserasinj IstAdi, depös, deiz, Idsedr; Igigl,, gets, дз:1г„
дэи ,
pirjk, ikslpranans, Ipe^i, peitj tin, Iwnntid, teik, ternd; Idrinkirj, keim,. Iksandid, lfce:li; btri, Ibiikan, bit, basd, Iba'.tn; kanldi^gn, Inwdid, aildra; giv, get, ga:Iz
islpejeli, Ipsetan; stil, pölteiteuz, Itjielip; kbp, glkeisenl, kaen, lukfupai; bt,. IJugabM, Ibakbaun; dt; dra, imAdi, da-.t; givz, Uuggast, Iregiulö
ЫрЫщ, peid, Ipjurplz, Ip3:fikt; t!:tj\ stik,- ltju;zdi, tiaz; ki:p, llukirj, Iksrid3, keuld; bt, albeid, bask, baut; mldfcd, Idim, ldju;h, deit; Igivn, gest, algen, .algaU'
Iptenin, pit, nlpeid, Ipaesmd33; stif, Isiti, greulteak, ta:nz; ktp, Ibreikin, kserid3, ksuld; Ibbin, best, bsek; 1Ьз:1эи; di:l, Iditiz, die, ded; tgetirj, geiv, gaui
7. Ihffipi, Iliikap,' IkAbad, |nju(:)lmaunJ8, 1ащ, 1р1лтэ, bum, Itpmas,
Ihsn, Swtsl, Ibukei, lh?arjkatfif, iwmza, Ikemist, laarjks, Ibsnkwit, iklsept, I
gaust, no:, sain, 1лп, Idaisfrsem, sai, plaü, eit
Exercises p. 77
6. jan—jAn. пряжа—молодой
'бт—6in тонкий—вещь
Igivlra—Igivirj уступить—riaжертвование
ldraiv'mw.ldraivirj Ъ
232
1клщ1т— 1клтщ приходить—приход
sah—ял о солнце—пропетый
klfcn — klm чистый—прилипать
inutlBirj — 1плШд не вещь—ничто
(дэЫгп— Igauirj входить — отъезд
эип— 1эшд собственный—долг
sein — IseiiQ нормальный—пословица
< brerk/in — I breikrg врываться—торможение
Uuklm—llukirj быстрый взгляд—смотрящий
6. brig, 1ллг, 'iggland, IJAgga, Iem8in els, lnA6irj av 9a' Ikamd, Iwihrjli,
tteikirj it, Imiagld, Isttpig, 6io, UiArjgn, Ifijirj, Imocmrj, Idramrjl вп, Пигщэ, IJAOgs
Jt !юп, sprig, Isfcirj э Ifrend Inf, Iklaspirj га 1Ьэи9 Ihsendz
7. Iraitirj, frtdirj, Igamrj, gtm, wen, sAg, Налддп, sAk, Btrj, Öifc, ihaerja,
, rsQk, kaum, 1э;Ьт, liogiij, Imiggld
Exercises p. 84
4. thin — sin тонкий — грех thick — sick толстый —> больной thought — sought думал — искал Forth — force вперед — сила mouth — mouse рот — мышь thumb — some большой палец — какой-нибудь worth — worse ценность — худший thick — tick толстый — тикать thought — taught думал — учил three — tree три — дерево seethe — seize кипеть — хватать lathe — laze токарный станок — безделье then — den тогда — логово though — dough хотя — тесто seethe — seed — смятение — семя heath — heat пустошь — жара both — boat оба — лодка forth — fought вперед — боролся clothe — close одевать — закрывать breathe — breeze дышать — бриз there — dare там — визов other — udder другой — вымя worthy — wordy достойный — многословный months месяцы
the eighth zone восьмая зона withstand противостоять clothes одежда sixth шестой is thin тонкий it's this это who's that кто это
6. faund^ieauzand, fa:st—63:st, fat—9si, Irk—Or*, fmz—6inz, def—depö
II. o:l—hal весь— зал 1Э—hia ухо—слышать aut~-haus внешний —дом at—hat искусство—сердце at—hut следовало бы —горячий is—hiz есть—его aust—haus выгонять—-дом it—hit это—удар il—hil больной —холм sez—1иев как—имеет
233
sed -— hged добавить—имел and —hsend и—рука am—ham рука—вред adz—hasndz добавляет—руки еэ—иеэ воздух-—волосы
14. sheep, sheet, sheen, ship, should, shook, shed, shell, shake, shave, shade, shame, shape, shy, shine; election, condition, delegation, competition, organization, station, pleasure, leasure, decision, vision, occasion, measure
16. П, Jtp, jAt, fij, brjij, lam;, Jfi/ra, Ispejal. Isteijsn, Ijusual
(р1езэ, Jup, 'Juga, Jud, Паз/, IbntiJ, linglij, laenkjas, Isenkjash, islpejali,
1к lkl
16, pas, isertnh, Isimk, sai3, liest?, ail, lhauziz, IhAzband, di!z9:t,
Ifiziks, Issfata, ilnAf, draft, lef I tenant, mevju(:}, Imseoju:, lgac]zws:9i, ig
Ivuik], IJepad, I Jugs, aljira, Ivsijan, Inaujan, Isaujal, Ik on Jans, IJivaln, tfeiz,
^ 1р1езэ, dl 1
Exercises p. 90
2. right, ride, ripe, cry, crisis, price, gray, bread, read, reap, reason, reach,
ridge, risk, friend, France, ring, rod, ran, rang, rot, wrong, great, try, rule,
roof, room, red, rest, ready, press, present, rash, rag, treason, written, row,
road, present
3. reits, red, ram, reust, raund, rsuz, lreko:d, iregj-ula, Ireilwei, 1глшп, Inalr,
Imsari, Inuend, frendz, Ikrasau, draiy, Ipraisiz,. tr», draund, Idresig, IwAri, Ifwid,
fhAndnd, Iterapritfa, Ikssnd, Ipiarrad, Iburaud, IkArents, tdifrent, Iflva, IkAmfst,
lhi;9a, W3:ld, almenka, istgslret, Imtidn, Inrats, 1тд(?э, wa:, Iwran, Istneri, 1кз:Ь„
IkAlad, Ineva, fa, Iststn, Ifiga, W3:k, da:z, pat, h:, ka
5. /ля, ju:fl, ja:, je:, jet, Ijestadi, ljust tu, njnz, Ihjuansn, mju(:)lziam, sju:ft
fjtt, rilvjus, ju;zd, Ikaepsjuiiz • ■ -
9. The English /r/ is a cacuminal sounds the Russian /p/ is a trilled one.
/U is pronounced with the middle of .the tongue raised not so high as for
the Russian /й/, which results in the more "noisy" character of the /ft/ articulation.
/1/ is "light", it is pronounced with the front secondary focus. The Russian /л/ is pronounced with the back secondary focus,
/i/ is "dark" because it is pronounced with the back secondary focus. The Russian /л'/ is veiy "soft" which is the result of the front secondary focus in its articulation.
/w/ is biiabial and bicentral, it is pronounced with the back secondary focus. The Russian /в/ is labio-dental and unicentral.
10. For instance: ел—ель, пол—Поль, кол—коль.
11. /W—v/, /e—ae/, /fc—i/, /re—e/ are separate phonemes.
12. Jes, alpmjen, Unjan, jttlnait, mjut, Injtute, Ijuarap, Isju(;)id5, wud, to:k,
fauk, bctm, llinkan, witf, wahs, Ikwaia, hu:z, talwo:dz, sad
Exercises p. 93
2» ЛГ» dg/ are pronounced as* indivisible clusters of two sounds and represent single phonemes ДГ/ and /dj5/. The combinations /tr, dr, ts, tz, te, dflf/ consist °3/ end6nt phonemes each: /V+АЛ /d/+// /t// /t/+// /i/+/6A
3. chin, check, chess, chain, China, child, rich, much, chop, watch, chalk,
coach, Jim, jinn, Jimmy, age, page, change, Jenny, Jack, Jane, George, Germany,
June
4. tfj:p, tJ4:k, pf, t/m, Itjfflnl, IdsentI, ld3ent!i, dgstmz, Istreindge,
ritf, witf, sAtf, mAtf, lAntf, WDtf, eidg, p«d3, ladj, lkDlid3, Ibtids,
234
Imaentfista, itnaänjulfsektj'araz, mldpimant, 9!remd3mant, mlgeidjmant, diltstft, Itempritfa, Inselfaral
6. tfaild, Ineitfa, Ikwestfen, Irait/as, Imtstfif, d50i, dsem, djips, п, lbAd3it, апиМз, Igrsendäa, Isauld33, Id
Control Task p. 105
(a) sit-down, read^,text 1, writedown, next^,time, glad^to see you,
what^can I do, like^to have it, what^.country, good^,time, tea and^cake,
don't_Jike, I'd.__ like, mashed^potatoes, mustard_p lease, got^to eat, that^pub,
■work_now, difficult^to deal, silk^dress, but_good, hit^nose;
(b) repeat^the noun, in^the noun, atwthe blackboard, clean_the board,
online seventh, rounds,the city, and^the guest, on^this, on^,the boy's plate,
just^thirsty, tell^the girl;
(c) will^you read louder, will^you please, will^you tell^rae, tell^,the girl
Exercises p. 115 I.
, (a) si:, wi;, trt, Ы:, mi, hi, ft;
(b) sl;m, rfcd, klfcn, sfcn, dtl, lpi:pl, IbziIi;
|(c) tjfcp, swi:p, tftf, trtt, lfcst, krtk, wik
2. $Ъ, lv, IkDnkrfct, ftt, mit, nts, nlsfcv, faltfcg, IfcsBiit, kfc, kfc
3. m, il, big, wirjgz, pit, stik, klifs, зрпц, Bio, sik, nst, Isih, Ibtldtg, ig
kig, lbu|[E, Igimz, Ikvli, Ibizi, Imimts, tgauin, ldij"[z, btlgmz, Iknhds, Iwimin,
kalmit, lrna:si, ibritsn, Iwtndau, Imtsiz, Isimptamz, Jhtrlidi, Imtnstid, iklsaitid, '(в), Iheziteit, Ipnvilid3, Ikntisizm, ilnitnt, Imedsin
4. did, lid, IglEdli, IfrMi, lirjks, 1клп^, Ivilidj, IwdJiz, lrLK3is, Ibuksiz,
, Ikrpiz, llaudid, Ifatmtin, Ibiskit, Ifraidr, sl:y, lletis, Iftjnd, lfo;fit, 1квн
5. bed, sed, help, tel, ]et, hed, Items, Iwe3a, Imemba, lleta, drest, (sets,
piij, Ismwei, lenvid, 1р1езэ, Ifrendh, Idresirj, Idessht, Iseprit, Iheziteit, raailself,
nlmemba, inldevs, hau I tel, misted, fat get, illevn
6. rsd, get, tent Isevn, hed, ded, et, 9э temz, Ibercal
7. glsed, baad, plsen, kasn, swaem, bl©ok, drajgk, sakt, sset, Ifaensi, Iglsadli,
IJsetau, Iffidid, Isepkjas, Ibsedli, itraeJik, Шагрэп, Idsadi, Isffidms, bilgsen, iglzaekth,
ilmsedjm, vslkaebjularr, IpraugrEem, Isaenwid3tz, imBenjulfselctfaz, Ibsslkara, Isseknfais
8. Iksen, laempl, hav, Isaeman, plsed, Jsemlpem, laebssluitli, laebstrakt, I
9. ck, ba:, fa;, ka, a:m, ask, ka:d, past, fam, hctf, po:t, lads, frctns, gras,
dak, gad, peck, stctt, sma;t, Ia:st, ha:d, niisk, Idccnsin, Ibctskio, IIcuFei], 1гсеоэ,
lhadlj, Ihaiba, Ictnsa, leftist, Ifaä9, Ibaskit, lldasiz, la:t[klz, la:k|ein{d)3(3)I,
dilpatja, mllctdj, stllaist
10. ma-st, lansa, la:st, ta, pit, lcuf, Ibakh, lhafad, hat
11. un, nod, wuz, rod, wiont, двп, d3Db, tot, Ion, sun, 1ЬвЭэ, Ibunit,
fdukta, (müdl, Ihiostal, ionist, Inudid, Ibudi, lufa, Ihnland, Iruki, Isphd, Ikaemit,
lükjupai, Ikotid3[z, Iprüsparas, d3[lumitn, Ifnlsuitt, Ihulidi, iWDznt, lsi:n \vi
12, hüt, Ision, Ifwm, Ikwohbi loümaritek, Iso:sid3, 'по1к1з, j'pt
13. тз:, dro:, o:l, кэ:1, bo:, ÖDit, ho:s, to:k, so:t, bo:t, d3s:d3, Jo:, b:\mz,
d lwo:ta, Ivraikin, 1тэ:ти, bilfo:, 1э:1зэи, lekspo:ts, rmlpoitans, bau»,
, b:kistra, lo:[talgeSa, af tko:s, rfo:t[lfo:
14. port, fo;t, flo:, do:, kD:st ko:t, fo:, рэ:, гэ:, wo:, bro:d, bo:tf гз:0, :1, jo:n, pa:, 9э:
235
15. gud, rum, wud, kuk, fut, tuk, put, sut, Juk, lukt, Ibujrz, imanjulfäektjaz,
Iwudn, Ikudnt, Iwudnt, Iwudland, Irestful, Iwuman, I put laut, I put Itm, gud I bar}
Ijiffitjroli, tnkalpitjuleit, Iksafli
16. put, puj1, pul, Iwustid, wulf, luk, stud, tuk, kud, j"ud, Ikurra
17. flu, Ztt, tit, hu:, tlS, JUS, jtS, fju:, tru, /u:d, SlMl, skis], jufl, mU:V, ГЦ:Г,
h]u:d3, nju:, Ijusuah, Isbsslicth, Inju(:)lmaunj3, Immvirj, Isevinju:, тртэ Ibjurfiful, rilvju:, irumd, Isjusaid, Ivffilju:, Iregjitla, Ipju^lz, Ihjttmsn, Iktltjj
18. blu:, md, ml, d3«:n, kitl, turn, gru:p, wund, bru:z, bru:, malnurva
19. tjun, Ihjunra, jits, kju:, Itjuzdi, sjust, Injista, fju-., Ibjir-tt, hjuz
20. WAn, глп, kn, jAn, bAs, fflAtJ", tAn, JAO, клт, 1лЭэ, 1злшэ, г
1шл9э, э1плЭэ, IkArgnts, tjAkl, IwAn, lhAndrad, 1пл8ц), 1галш, IfAm, Ikvli,
IkAntn, IkAtnpas, mAst, d3Ast, ItrAbl, IwAndaful, IwAndslaend, mlstrAkta, [intra-
IdkJ Ii
21. mAst, An!d3Ast, d3Ads, ШлтЬлд, dAz, frAnt, э1тл5/1тлш, flAd, ikApJ,
TAf, Uf
22. wa:, hsid, wa:d, lws:kaz, ISarti, sta:, ta:nd, lte:nnj, lbs:tn, hs:, J3:z, iba:bu,
ga:lz, ba:dz, wstk, Itaiki, lka:tn, fa:st, ws^d, wa:s, 1|э:1эк, Isa'.tnh, W3:6, da:t,
lpa:fikt
23. sts:, iffla:tl, lka:nl, Ьз:д, Iwarks, lta:na, ns;s, !a:
24. glgen, bUtjj]» slbaut, alkros, elbei, glpDn, falget, sslpraiz, [sigalret, ipikaldili, kgnlfes, pslhseps, salpauz, kanldijan, pglsent, hslself, ts ipli:z, ta 'step, Ээ Isüg, ta Idu;, te IfiJ, 0э lga:lz, 1рв:щэпэп1, Iprnbebli, Ifamsli, iwAndalsend Iwudlsnd, idekareit, ighmarm, Imsenijists, Idesalit, Irekagnaiz, Itrsevls, Ibselksni
Exercises p. 134
1. (a) When preceded by /w, I, 0, s, d, tf, r, j, h, m, n/ the /i:/ phoneme is pronounced: as labialized in /wi:/; with the labiodental, position. for /f/ in /Ifi:v9/; with the interdental position of the tip of the tongue in /6i:m/; with the apical constriction (round narrowing) in /si:/; with the apical occlusion for /d/ in /di:l/; with the cacuminal position of the tip of the tongue for /r/ in Ihy.pzl; with the palatal position of the bulk of the tongue for /j/ in /ji:Id/; with the glottal (pharyngal) narrowing for /h/ in /hi:/; as nasalized after /m, n/ in /mi:lz, mi:, ni:dnt/.
(b) When followed by / b, v, Э, t, 1, J1, tf, к, д, m, n/ the /i:/ phoneme is pronounced:1 with the bilabial release in /gri:b/; with the labio-dental release in /li:v/; with the interdental release in /Ji:6, bri:S/; with the apical occlusion in the final stage in /i:t, fi:l/; nasali'ed before /m, n/, with the velar closure in /bi:k, Itg/; retracted.
tongue in /fiJV; with the interdental position of the tip of the tongue in /Girjks, 9irj/; with the apical position of the tip of the tongue in /dsd, sit, lift/; as retracted in /Igiva/; with the cacuminal position of The tip of the tongue in /ntJV; as retracted Jn /kil/; with the glottal (pharyngal) narrowing for /h/ in /hid/.
(b) the /r/ phoneme is pronounced: as nasalized in /him/;2 with the labiodental release in /if, hv/; with the interdental release in /mi6, wiS/; with th&
1 That is the first stage and the beginning of the medial stage of the vowel are affected.
a Thai is the final stage 'is affected.
236
apical release in /iz, bil/; as nasalized in /tin/; with the palato-alveolar position of the tip of the tongue in the final stage in /паз/; as retracted in /pik, big/.
Control Tasks p. 136
1. Vowel No. I /i:/, quantitative changes: it is the longest in: sea, we, tree,, he. It is shorter in: easily, meals, fever. It is the shortest in: cheaper, sleet, speaker, teach, keep, sheep.
The quality of the vowels depends on the articulatory characteristics of the consonants which precede or follow them. E. g. in sea I'v.l is modified under the influence of the forelingttal, apical, alveolar, voiceless, fortis, constrictive* /s/; in we — under the influence of the bilabial, constrictive sonorant /w/; in meals — the nasal, bilabial, occlusive sonorant /ml; in cheaper — the lingua], forelingual, apical, palato-alveolar, voiceless fortis constrictive/t]/; in tree — the lingual, forelingual, cacuminal, post-alveolar, constrictive sonorant h/;. in fever ■— the labial, labio-dental, voiceless, fortis, constrictive IV; in sleet — the lingual, forelingual, apical, alveolar, constrictive "light" /J/; in speaker — the labial, bilabial, voiceless, fortis, occlusive /p/; in he — the pharyngali (glottal) voiceless fortis, constrictive /h/; in teach — the lingual, forelingual, apical, voiceless fortis, ocelusive III; m sheep — the lingual, forelingual, apica]„ palato-alveolar voiceless fortis constrictive Ц1. Etc.
Control Tasks p. 143 1.
/ei/
A. (1) a) pay, make, pain, weigh, way, waste, pale, Wales, paint; b) face;;
(2) b) lake, lay, day, late, lain, David, sane, taken; c) shape; d) rain, ray; (4^
game, case, gave.
B. (I) a) game, famous, able, shape; b) David, gave; (2) b) again, pain, case„
rain, late, -waste, pale, sane, Wales, face; c) age; (4) make, lake, ache, taken-
/au/
A. (1) a) boating, poker, motor, poet, motive; b) foe; (2) a) though; b) don't,,
total, social, son, nose, noticed; c) shoulder, jokes; d) road, bureau; (3) yolk;.
(4) go, gold, cosy; (5) hope, hotel, hold.
B. (1) a) hope; b) over; (2) a) both; b) boating, hotel, hold, only, follow,
road, shoulder, gold, don't, old, cold, motor, poet, motive, total, nose, cosy,,
noticed; c) social; (4) poker, yolk, jokes.
Г/ai/
A. (1) a) why, wild, mild, while, my, Michael; b) profile; (2) b) die, nine,,
silence, side, like, climb; d) right, rise, bright; (4) kind, kindly, kite; (5) high.
B. (1) a) climb; b) wife; (2) b) kind, wild, mild, nine, while, silence, profile,,
right, side, kindly, isles, eyes, idea, quite, bright; (4) like, Michael.
/au/
A. (1) a) pound, mouth; b) found; (2) a) thousand; b) south, now, down,,
sound, loud; d) round, drown; (4) couch; (6) how.
B. (2) a) south, mouth; b) drown, out; thousand, down, round, pound,,
found, loud; c) couch.
/01/
| A. (1) a) boy, point; (2) b) soil, employ, noise; c) join, enjoy, joint; t; (4) i b) |
() ) y, poit; (2) b) oil, employ, d) destroy; (4) coin.
B. (2) b) join, point, coin, soil, noise, joint.
/»/
A. (I) a) Crimea; b) severe; (2) b) dear, near, idea, museum; (3) year; (5)
here.
B. (1) museum; (2) b) accordeon, ears, real, realize, period; d) weary.
23?
/89/
A. (I) a) parent, anywhere, bare, despair, pair. Mary; b) various, farewell;
(2) a) there; b) stare, stairs, dare; (4) care, square, carefully.
B. (1) b) carefully; (2) b) stairs; d) parents, various, Mary.
/U9/
A. (1) a) poor, moor; (2) b) tour, during; c) sure, usual.
B. (2) b) usual; d) during, Europe,
2. sauÖ, smlsiak, (stremdgli, falsiliteitid, Iwamdirj, риэ, Ifrafeuin, Imlaiz, 4mauta, lhaitn, palteitauz, lamralnait, IQiata, Id3uanst, Imsen, Imaikal, lamdgilau, ■Jd3em fsa, ml dormant, Itaifbid, ljuarsp, с|иэ
Exercises p. 152
1. a) /le/ before the mediolingual sonorant /j/ is a a advanced variant of
the fully back /le/, the back part of the tongue moves forward closer to the
position for the mediolingual /j/,
b) /e/ before the dark /1/ is more open.
c) /k, g/ followed by /le/, /!:/ are slightly rounded. They are slightly pal
atalized before Д/, /se/.
d) /Pit.g/ followed by /vu/, /ж/ are labialized, /p, t, g/ palatalized^efore /i:/.
2. Alveolar /t, d, n, 1/ become dental followed by /Э, 9/.
3. Post-alveolar /r/ becomes alveolar after /6, S/, /r/ is devoiced preceded
% Ih i. t, 6/, labialized followed by /d:, k/.
4. In (a) /d, g, g/ are non-labialized, in (b), (c) /d, 3, 1, g/ are labialized
'.followed by /w/»
5. Sonorants /w, j, 1, r/ are devoiced most noticeably in the initial clusters
Up], pr, tw, tr, kw, kl, kr/ when followed by a stressed vowel. In the clusters
M' tJ» kj, И. fr, fj, 9r, Öj, Öw, sw, si, sj, sm, sn/ devoicing is less noticeable.
8. Assimilation of place in final alveolars:
a)/I/ to /p/ b)/d/ to /b/ c)/t/ to /k/
/braip blui/ /0з:Ь pat/ /jak keik/i
/dap bo:d/ /heb boi/ /braik grtn/
/waipwoj"/ /reb rai:t/ d)/d/ to /g/ /hctb walk/ /haig kssj/ /heg ge:l/
e) In/ to /o/ f) /s/ to /J/
/in Iktudif/ /Ikrismoj IJüpin/
/'sArj glcusiz/
g) reciprocal assimilation before /j/
/igetfa: Ikaut/ /Iwauntja*/
/ai Ih3:d5üi kAmlm/ /Ikudntju-/
/IbleJ Jtt/ /IJudntJiE/
/tkbu3 зэ: ibuks/ /Ikantjus/
) /Э/ is assimilated, following /n, 1, s, z;
/in пэ 1ко;пэ/ /Iwots ss Ipumt/ /IkI la Ibuks/ /Iwesz za ibrednaif/
■9. a) /kief Ipeeldt/ /1Ьлд Itelafaun/
/weis Ipeipa/ /,n ntf ifedsUfs/
| ftfl L?LLz/ /lnd3 Iserfes/ /Ibaö Оэ Jbeibi/ /idaiv biflau/ 238 |
ftf*l Lstr?bnz/ /ld Ife/
b) /Itrap bai/ /kJauZ l
/lkra>k iputs/ /Ibffcö IdJpli/
/idAb Ifitm/ c) /Islaem 9э Ida:/
/Iheabrem Iskfcm/
/istrirj Imjuizikl instranrant/
Control Tasks p. 155
10. (I) Aspiration in all English words beginning with /p, f, k/. No aspiration in Russian words beginning with /п, т, к/.
(2) Short English vowels are not affected by loose GV transition in /top/,
/pit/, /Ipepa/, etc.—close CV transition.
a) Russian soft initial /т, с, д, p/ result from the loose CV transition in
тина, сила, день, ряд, etc. «
(3) Labialization with the lip protrusion in: бук, дуло. Labialization with
no lip protrusion in: топь, поле, Коля, роль, лом, ток, соль, поли, ком. English
consonants followed by /о:, u:/ are pronounced with slight labialization (no lip
protrusion).
1). (1) lateral plosion: curdled, muddle, needless, mottled, at last, red tight* huddle, good looks;
(2) nasal plosion: Britain, oughtn't, admit, madness, witness, partner, cotton,
great number, sudden, captain, at night;
(3) loss of plosion: actor, begged, what kind, back to back, big books, slept,
top coat, black goat, ripe cheepe. • v
12. /a/—more back in /ka/; /j/ —more high in /lpju:ta/;" /t/ more back In Д
13. Care should be taken 1) to avoid regressive voicing or devoicing of the-sounds given in bold type: /laenikdaut/,- /Ibatfdej/, /Iblakbsd/, /Imedsm/, /10» Ibuk/, /llets Igou/, /Iwuts оэ Itaira/; 2) to pronounce alveolar /s, z, 6, 1/ as-dental, since they are followed by-the interdental /9, Э/: /stksö, hiz Win, Ipcts-Ззт, liz Iflaet, fif8sf Isimös löea, lsu:3z öam, ttel 9эт, Im 9э/.
Exercises p. 163
1. с, с, с, eau, ou, ough
3. Graphemes Phonemes Letters
b-a-o-b-a-b /Ib-ei-a-b-as-b/ b-a-o-b-a-b
v-e-s-t /v-e-s-t/ v-e-s-t
d-u-l-y /ld-jui-1-i/ d-u-I-y
sh-i-p Я-1-Р/ s-h-i-p
d-i-sh /d-i-J/ d-i-s-h
aw-E-u-1 /la-f-u-1/ a-w-f-u-1
d-aw-n /d-a:-n/ d-a-w-n
1-igh-t /1-ai-t/ 1-i-g-h-t
h-igh /h-ai/ h-i-g-h
w-or-k /w-3:-k/ w-o-r-k
ar-ch-a-i-c /a-lk-ei-i-k/ a-r-c-h-a-i-c
ai-r-y /lea-r-i/ a-i-r-y
1-au-gh /1-cc-f/ 1-a-u-g-h
w-a-tch-ed /w-D-tJ-t/ w-a-t-c-h-e-d
4. <r> = /r/ in rait, alfreid, prei, trai, tven, drai; <our>==/ua/ in tourT
<ear>=/ra/ in tear.
5. <ed> indicates the past indefinite morpheme -ed which is pronounced*
ft, id, d, d, id, t, d, d/.
6. psekt, bad, реэ, frank, weg, IweSa, sl;n, bs:8, Isfchrj, ssul, bsa, preir rein, peil, еэ, farad, pemz, tfcz, pi:s, ffct, wit/, die, bau, bred, rait, pra,
239
3>!:tj\ hra, far, teil* nidil, sAri, bfct, breik, meiz, wi:k, IkArsnt, Isferral, vein, sei, -seil, Ikumphnrentr'hea, bb, sfc, mit, hi=l, fea, sent, raud, tfcrn, ho:s, Iben, gert, ■plem, kl:
договор «-1 упакованный, под запором — засов, пара — подрезать, Стричь — груша, франк — искренний, носить — где, погода — ли, сцена — увиденный, койка — рождение, потолок — скрепленный печатью, подошла — душа, голый — медведь, просить, умолять — добыча, дождь — царствование, ведро — бледный, воздух — наследник, оштрафованный — находить, старания, труды — оконные стекла, чай — дразнить, мир — кусок, подвиг — ноги, колдунья — который, дорогой — олень, гнуть — сук, хлеб — воспитанный, правый — писать — обряд, церемония, ровня — дам-■<5а, пляж — бук, слышать — здесь, мех — пихта, ель, рассказ — хвост, мужской — почта, солнце — сын, бить — свекла, ломать — тормоз, кукуруза — лабиринт, слабый — неделя, смородина — течение, серийный — овсянка, кукурузные хлопья, тщетный — вена — флюгер, продавать — ■ячейка, парус — продажа, комплимент — дополнение, волосы — заяц, голубой — дул, море — видеть, мясо — встречать, исцелять — пятка, плата за проезд — ярмарка, цент — посланный — запах, ехал верхом — дорога, бригада — кишеть, хриплый — лошадь, ягода — хоронить, ворота —походка, ясный — самолет, ключ — набережная
7. (а) me-ter, ca-ring, beau-ty, sour-Iy, sure-ly, tea-cher, cry-ing, six-ty;
i(b) pray-s; praise, child-'s, read-able, mis-rule, penni-less, un-known, dis-like,
im-mortal, ir-rational
8. Mute (r), (e) indicate historical length or the diphthongal nature of the
preceding vowel phonemes (second columns a); (nn), (ss), (tt), (rr) indicate the
short character of the preceding vowel phonemes (second columns b).
9. Эйбел, Эндрю, Эни, Болдуин, Бернард, Дороти, Эстер, Джеральд,
.Хыого, Аира, Джин, Джереми, Кит, Лайонел, Мейбл, Марта, Пий
Control Tasks p. 164
1, face, Eac-ing, nic-er, choic-est, гас-y, princ-ess, age, rag-ing, 1 arg-er, urg-ent, bu!g-y, burg-ess, rage-cl, change-ling, outrage-ous, face-d, nice-ly, huge-ly, engage-ment, change-able
b)
| c) |
| cu-ring fires cured o-ccurred stir-ring stirred pi-ning pined wor-ker wor-king worked tho-rough-ly cul-ture na-tion cit-y red-der chee-ring |
2. a) cur-ing fire-s cheer-less cure-d oc-curr-ed stirr-ing stirr-ed pin-ing pine-d work-er work-ing work-ed thorough-ly cult-ure nat-ion cit-y redd-er cheer-ing
3. ai=/er, еэ е, г, э/; /eid, ffesri, /streit/; au = /o:, cc/r/lagast, sd:s, Ы, *!■/; ay, ei = /ei/; /«Ml«, Ьегз/; ее, ео — /%!/: /freit, wei/.
/Ikjua-nrj/
/1 Еа (1) эг /
/Itjia-lis/
/kjuad/
/alka:d/
/Ista: -no/
/sterd/
/lpai-шп/
/pamd/
/Ik/
/IW3:-kirj/ /W3>kt/
/ША-Г8-11/
/IkAl-tJa/
/Inei-Jan/
/Isit-i/
/lred-э/
/Itfra-nn/
sed, Ifauntin, (poitnt, Ivilan/; aigh=/ej/: =/i, e/: /Ipfcpl, Jerepans, 'jlepad/; eigh =
4. sealing, ceiling, ceiling; soles, sole, sole, soul, soul; bare, bear, bear, 'bear, bear; pair, pear, pair; write, right, right, right; vain, vain, vanes, vein, vein
240
Exercises p. 177
1. (I) CVC, СГС; (2) CVCC, СГСС; (3) CVCCC, СГССС; (4) CSVS, CSVS,
ССГС; (5) CV, СГ; (6) CCV (CSV), ССГ; (7) VC, ГС; (8) CCCV (CCSV), СССГ;
(9) VCC (VSG), ГСС'ПО) VCCG (VSCC), ГССС; (11) CCSVSC, СССГСС; (12)
CVC (V) SCC, СГСССС; (13) CCCVC (CCSVS), СССГС; (14) CSVCC (CSVSC),
ССГСС; (151 CCVCCC (CSVSCC), ССГССС
2. (a) lpf>pJ, Ibjtc-gl, Isse-tfal, Itrai-fl, In-äm, lei-pnl, ib-kwal, Шэе-рэпг,
Imai-blz, Ips-tanz, idrse-gnz, Is:-d3ant, Isai-vant, ili-snd, Ihe-raldz, le-randz,
Jpsa-rents, Itaan-d39nts, Ipei-Jants, iskse-falds
(b) CV — CS, CV — CS, CV — CVC, CV — CS, V — CSVS, V — CSVS, CV — CVSC, SV — CSC, CV — CVSC, CSV — CSC, V — CVSC, CV — CVSC, SV — CSC, CV — SVSCC, V — SVSCC, CV — SVSCC, CVC — CVSCC, CV — CVSCC, CV-CVSCC, CCV-CVSCC
3. 2, 2, 4, 4, 2, 4, 3, 5, 3, 4, 3, 4, 6, 2, 3, 5, 6
| 7. Syllables | Syllabographs |
| W3:k | work |
| ■wor-king | |
| 1\уз:-кэ | wor-ker |
| pamd | pined |
| Ipai-mq | pi-ning |
| Jsta;rlij | stir-ring |
| Э-lljgid | o-ccurred |
| kjuad | cured |
| (tfis-lis | cheer-less |
| lkjua-пл | cu-ring |
| f tfta-rtrj | chee-ring |
| lfa(i)9-ni] | li-rtng |
| lred-(d)a | red-der |
| (net-Jan | na-tion |
| ikAt-tfa | cul-ture |
| J9A-r9-Ii | tho-rough-ly |
Control Tasks p. 178
1. (a) at, aunt, elks, asks, ebbed
(b) took, lifts, texts, clenched, tip, struck, strays, thrust, bet, fact, fret,
price
(c) pray, straw, boy, pea
(a) ил, от, астр
(b) рад, ЗАГС, горсть, скетч, взрыв, всласть, сфинкс, чувств, сон, Минск,
гипс, здесь, злак
(c) мгла, кто, та, что
2. а) Ь) | «) Ь) I а) Ь) I а) Ь) | а) Ь) I а) Ь) I а) Ь)
st|lm|bk|ms|sk|gv|tp etc.
3. IkAm-fe-ta-bl, Ik-o-hds, bi-ffad, graund, Ikt-tfan, fpaen-trr, IstA-dr, isev-ral,
tAp-lstsaz, lbsd-ru:m, Inaisa-rr, 1Ьа9-гшт, Ifai-m-tfa, Imai-dan, 9un, illek-ltn-si-ti,
Idsae-njue-n, lfeb-шэ-п, Is-gast, sap-ltem-Ьэ, эк-lteu-ba, nau-lvem-ba, di-lsem-Ьэ,
Iwen-zdi,' Itju-zdi, 10s:-zdi
4. pa-rents, fire, piu-ral, гц-ral, din-ner, mar-ry, dis-ap-pear, speak-ing,
writ-ing, play-ing, walk-ing, stand-ing, pas-sing, break-fast, po-ta-toes, to-rna-
toes, cof-fee, cab-bage, ba-na-nas, ber-ries, pud-ding, pears, beer, shop-pmg,
iron-ing, house-work, mis-take, fish-ing
5. an aim for it; a blacked eye; not a tall; that stuff; I saw her eyes; the way
to cut it; I saw the meat; white shoes; might rain; keeps ticking; grade A
9-182
241'
Exercises p. 136
1. лишенный помощи, неотчужденный, неизменный, невооруженный,
неаспирированный, нечистый, противоциклонный, антинациональный, не
уплата, иногородний, без остановок, бывший министр, вновь открывать,,
реорганизовать, перепаковать, оплаченный заранее, писать с орфографиче
скими ошибками, неправильное применение, плохое правление, неправильно,
цитировать, положить не на то место, одетый слишком просто, младший офи
цер, малонаселенный, вице-адмирал, вице-консул, предыстория, ультрасов
ременный
2. красивый, старомодный, злой (раздражительный), рассеянный, с не
покрытой головой, домашнего изготовления
4. яблоня, свидетель, рассвет, день рождения, овчарка, наволочка,,
школьник, чемодан, расписание, чернильница, прическа, домашняя хозяйка,,
всё, камин, (радио)вещание, авторучка, любой
5. бабочка, вновь прибывший, растяпа, кузнец, мужское пальто (ши
нель), самолет, василек, соусник, масленка, закладка для книг
6. классная доска — черная доска; дрозд — черная птица; сейф — проч*
ная коробка; переутомиться — сверх работы (задания); лютик — желтая
чашка; высокий комод (бокал на высокой ножке) — высокий мальчик
Control Tasks p. 188
1. lair-raid, Ibirdcage, Icoalmine, Iteapot, Iwashstand, Imail-bag, ldance-|rnu-
sic, (grandfather, I hand | writing, Ishop [keeper, Uadybird, loffice-boy, Iwaiting-room,
I dinner-1 jacket, Itape rejcorder, I labour exchange, IgrornidUloor, Iknee-ldeep, Icross-
Iquestion, Iflat-lfooted, Ishop-lwindow, hot-iwater-|bottle, waste-lpaper-jbasket,
Ipost-lgraduate, Ivice-1 chancellor, Isecondhand
2. l£ebs(a)nt—ablsent отсутствующий—уклоняться
I k u mpres—kaml pres компресс—сжимать
IkDnsDit—kanlSDjt супруг Q/cm.) — общаться
Iprodjurs—praldjtns продукция—предъявлять
linfiks—mlftks инфикс {гром,)—втыкать, вставлять
Ikumbam—kamlbain комбайн—объединять
lknnsa(:)t-kanlsa:t концерт, согласие—договариваться
Idezat — dilzs:t пустыня—бросать, покидать
lautlei—autllei издержки — тратить
Exercises p. 196
1. /lama—lami/ /э—i/; /ikslpenmsnt —ikslpenment/ /э—е/; /э11и;зэп—•
111ц:зад/ /э—i/; /sam—sAm/ /э—л/j /Itetem—ltel(h)im/ /э—i/; /Ы—8«V
/э—«/; /Isite— Isiti/ /э—i/; /vslraiati—Ivesnss/ /э—еэ/; /lfa\red—foitaraid/
/э—э:/; /lestimabl — lestimeit/ /э—ei/
2. Iprautest, Ikuntent, IktHnent, la&bstreekt, Isesfselt, Ikaenut, Ibpuk, lbl»ga:d,
lekspoit, ШлтЬлд, lekspait, Imsti'tjutt
3. lo:fn, Isejan, Ispejel, Idifikalt, 5эт, кэп, Ikunferans, Idikfansn, leipral,
hav
| 4. a) /iilmijn/ | /ju:lza:p/ /u:lgand3/ | /eilo:ta/ |
| /lllevn/ | /Itil/pemtirj/ | |
| /enlsam/ | Mpltain/ | /Ikoiaut/ |
| /sebsltrskt/ | /з:1Ьет/ | |
| /ubldsektiv/ | /aildie/ | /hrarUnda/ |
| /orlkestral/ | /autlwit/ | /jualrei3J3n/ |
| Ь) в/л/да | х/л/жу | пл/л/дбв |
| н/л/га | с/л/сна | пр/л/вёл |
| гр/л/за | Др/Л /Bl | п/л/шу |
| г/л/лбв | п/л/ля | ц/ыв/на |
242
«т/л/рбн ст/л/лй /д'ие/р£вня
б/л/рбдка дв/л/рбв /в'ие/сёлье
Control Tasks p. 197
1. llaätjkfc, simlphstti, Iprautest, Iskailik, paniOten, Ibuldug, lautda: (damtgrum, Imtu, Imildju:, IwudkAt, lhatbam, IhAmpbsk, Ihaiwei, Isimplifai 4 haibrau, Iktmvoi, Irembau, Iremkaut, Undswea, tomatjua
4, Ээ Igcudian Injuspeipar | izfeimas far its misprints l| wai 13saz i:vn э Igadian ■imisprmt | pralza:vd in Ibras fa prlstenti | злт ]э:г эГдэи | Bfi= el vinau Iwam ba | dalsaidid ta Iput лр a Iplaak | m innar av Iftiip haup Iwnhs | its moust JfeiÖf| l ip iprobabh Iwitnst halbitjuei j| ^ Isau Imenjnn) iz lemmens эг э Iwit | ■Irsekanlts: j tq Ikntik i it waz Idjirii ipleist J э1Ьлу iz ljugual !stt т>п пэ lwo:l | эп lld et э lsmo:l IritfualJ ai daunt IwBnt э sta At)lgreitf| sed 9a relsipiant | at it fkbusli j bat öez aunlr liwin el in filip ] p Jju:v put in JtiK || lhau t bi: l Igaspt 9э Imsenid3mant [| wi wa lkeaf| ta I tfek wt0 9a Igadian ||
GLOSSARY OF PHONETIC TERMS
ACCENT /'ffikssnt/ is stress and pitch combined. If a stress occurs in the stepping head without a downward step in pitch, the word concerned is not accented. Stress in such words is usually weakened because there is no change of pitch accompanying them. See STRESS.
ACCENTEME /' ajksentfcm/. The distinctive function makes word accent a separate suprasegmental, or prosodic phonological unit, e.g. primary and weak word accentemes perform word distinctive functions in English: 'billow, be'low, in Russian: мука, му~ка. It also performs form-distinctive functions in Englishr 'import — to im'port, and in Russian: руки (pi), руки (genitive).
ACCENTUAL NUCLEUS /a5k'sentju3l 'njtrkhss/— that syllable in the word which is effected by a change in pitch direction.
ACCIDENCE/'eksidens/— grammatical rules about the changes in the form of words connected with different modifications of their sound nature. For example: foot — feet, have — has — had.
ACCOMMODATION /e,kuma'deijen/ — adaptation to different adjacent sounds, e.g. in /tut/ /t/ is labialized under the influence of /и/ and Ы1 is a little bit advanced under the influence of /t/.
ACCURACY OF PRONUNCIATION /'aekjurasi av pre,nAnsi'eiJan/ - cor-rect and distinct pronunciation.
_ ACOUSTIC PHONETICS /a'kuistik fau'netiks/ — a branch of phonetics which deals with physical properties of sounds.
ADJACENT SOUNDS /a'^eisant 'saundz/ — sounds that follow each other.
AFFRICATES /'tefnkits/ — the sounds formed during the separation of the articulating organs: in their articulation the complete closure gradually and uninterruptedly opens into a flat-slit narrowing: /tf, ä^U
ALLOCHRONES /'telekraunz/ — quantitative variants of a phoneme-The term is used by D. Jones and other foreign phoneticians.
ALLOPHONES /'selafaunz/ — qualitative variants or members of one and the same phoneme, which never occur in identical positions, but are said to be m complementary distribution.
ALLOPHONIC TRANSCRIPTION imWtvmk trens'knpjenl - this type of transcription is based on the principle "one symbol per allophone". Tin* transcription provides a special sign for each variant of each phoneme. A pho-2TvJS reü?fteä in.th?s transcription as a unity of all its allophones. The sym-ets [1 аП allophomc transcription are usually placed between square brack-
th, ™S*NATI0N* ?F S0UNDS tfllWiuaSm ev 'saundz/ - changes oj fЙА Äm fferent denvat>ves from the same root or in different grammatical
| ALVEOlK ftffl P p the JppeTterth! /el'viele 'ri-dsen/ - bow-lifie prominence ^V'^T1 *"#• or ALVEOLI /el'vielai/ - depressions in the 8/оске* tbe upper teeth. ! |
aEatn^Ha,-' Vnckm-lltrrVhS °f the Same mOrP
the &YSW C0NS,9NANTS Ä8Ä. 'bns3nants/ - articulated by
for exallS /t dgUs' }hIch makeS a comPlete obstruction with the alveoles,
ALVEOlK ftffl™18 'P«nt/ - the central point of the upper №
JppeTterth! /el'viele 'ri-dsen/ - bow-lifie prominence behind
S^^issegi™**"—* A"" "ne"liti
244
ARTICULATORY PHONETICS /o/tikjtiteitan fsu'netiks/ — the description and classification of speech sounds articulated by the speech apparatus,
ASPECTS OF A PHONEME /'jespakts sv э 'faunfcm/: a phoneme is a dia
lectical unity of three aspects: I. material, real and objective; 2. abstractional
and generalized; 3. functional. ..... л
ASPIRATION /,sespi'reijW - a slight puff of breath which is beard after the explosion of /p, t, k/ in initial position.
ASSIMILATION /9,simi'leiy9n/ — the result of adaptation of one sound to another. It can be progressive, regressive or reciprocal. Most commonly the sounds which undergo assimilation are immediately adjacent in the stream oh speech. For example in сдал Id is voiced under the influence of Ы; in hotse.- shoe Is/ is pronounced as /j/ under the influence of Ц1 which follows it,
ATTITUDTNAL FUNCTION /, eeti'tjudinl 'fArjkjW — this function fs" performed by intonation when the speaker expresses his attitude to what he is saying by intonation alone.
В
BACK-/bask/— the term is used in phonetics to characterize the vowels, which are formed with the bulk of the tongue in the back part of the mouth cavity, when it is raised towards the junction between the hard and the soft parts of the palate; back vowels are: /u-, v, o:/ and the nuclei of the diphthongs /oi, ээ/.
BACK ADVANCED VOWELS /'bak ad'vcwist 'vauslz/ - the term char-acterizes vowels, which are formed with the back-advanced position of the bulk of the tongue: /u, at, л/ and the nuclei of the diphthongs /эй, иэ/.
BACK SECONDARY FOCUS /'bask 'sekenden 'fsukes/ - it is formed by raising the back part of the tongue towards the soft palate (velarisation); e.g. /w/ and "dark" [1] are pronounced with the back secondary foci.
BICENTRAL /bai'sentral/ — formed with two places of articulation,
BICENTRAL CONSONANTS /bai'sentrsl 'kunsötlents/ — consonants articulated with two centres of complete or incomplete obstruction: /w, I, j> 3i tS, аз/. E.g. English "dark" [1] is bicentrai, because one place, or centre of articulation is formed by the sides (or one side) of the tongue, which are lowered. The other centre of articulation is formed by the back of the tongue raised to the soft palate, which produces the effect of "hardness".
BILABIAL /bai'leibial/ — articulated by the upper and the lower hp. Bilabial consonants are: /p, w, b, ml.
BLOCK [bluk/ — to prevent the air from flowing out of the mouth cavity when the soft paiate is lowered and the air passes out of the nasal cavity. The air passage through the mouth cavity is blocked in the articulation of /m, n/.
BLOW /blau/ — to'direct the air from the mouth or nasal cavity.
BODY /'b-odi/ - the whole.
BODY OF THE TONGUE /'budi sv 5a 'Urj/ — the whole of it.
BREATH /breOA— the process of blowing the air out of the mouth or nasal cavity through the bronchi and the wind-pipe, or blowing it into the lungs,
BRONCHI /'brarjkai/ — two main divisions of the trachea, leading into the lungs,
BULK /bilk/ see BODY.
С
CACUMINAL /b'kju-mmsl/ — articulated by the tip and the blade of the tongue raised against the back slope of the teethridge. Ivl is.a cacuminal sound.
CARDINALS /'ka-draelz/ — an international standard set of artificial vowel sounds which, according to D. Jones, can be produced with the bulk of the tongue at the four cardinal points in the front part of the mouth cavity and at the four cardinal points in the back part of the mouth cavity.
245
CARRYING POWER /'каггид 'раиэ/— inherent properties of sounds connected with their sonority, which are due to their individual articulatory and acoustic characteristics.
CENTRAL VOWELS /'sentral 'vauslz/ — vowels formed by the central part oi the tongue; a central high vowel is the Russian vowel /ы/ and a central low vowel is the Russian vowel /a/.
CENTRING DIPHTHONGS /'sentnrj 'difGDrjz/ ha, еэ, эе, иэ/ — falling diphthongs, which glide to hi which is considered to be "central". Russian phoneticians refer hi to mixed vowels.
CHECKED VOWELS /'tfekt 'vaualz/ — short stressed vowels pronounced without any decrease in the force of articulation and immediately followed by consonants, e.g. hi in the word city.
CHEEKS /tffcks/ - sides <A the mouth cavity.
CHRONEME /'krauntm/ — a unit, which shows that length is phonem-icaliy relevant (there are three chronemes in the Estonian language and only one in English and in Russian}.
CLASSIFICATION /,klassifi'keifan/ — the method which studies common properties of the investigated phenomena and which is used to arrange them systematically.
. CLASSIFY /'klaesrfai/ — to arrange the common properties of (phonetic) phenomena according to their typical characteristics.
CLAUSE TERMINAL /'kbas Чз:ттэЦ — this term is used by American descriptivists. According to H. A, Gleason there are three clause terminals in English: fading /\/, rising I/I, sustained /-*-/.
CLEAR SOUND /'klia 'saund/ — the sound which is made softer due to additional articulatory work, E.g, the raising of the middle part of the tongue to the hard palate (front secondary focus) "softens", or clears III in initial position, compare: lily, light and bill, hilt.
CLOSE NEXUS /'klaus 'neksas/ — close connection between a short checked vowel and a consonant which follows it. For example: /i+t/ in the word city.
CLOSE TRANSITION /'klaus trsn'si3an/ — articulation of two neighbouring sounds when the first stage of the second sound takes place already during the medial stage of the first sound, e.g. palatalization in the Russian word пил, labialization in the word two /tu:/.
COALESCENT /,keus'lesnt/ — bilateral assimilation of two sounds when in the result they give a new sound. For example: /s/ + /j7 -+ISI in mission /'misjen/ -+ /'mijW.
COMBINATORY ALLOPHONES /kam'birotan ' ffllaufsunz/ — variants of a phoneme which appear in speech as a result of assimilation and adaptation or of the specific ways of joining sounds together.
COMMUNICATIVE CENTRE /ka'mjurmketiv 'sentg/ — a word or a group of words which conveys the most important point of communication in the sense-group or sentence,
COMMUNICATIVE TYPES /ka'mjmnikativ 'taips/ - the types of sentences which are differentiated according to the type of intonation. V. A. Vas-silyev gives the following communicative types: 1. Categoric and non-categoric statements. 2, Disjunctive questions. 3. Commands, 4, Exclamations, 5. Special questions. 6. Alternative questions. 7. General questions and 8. Requests.
COMMUTATION METHOD /,komjar'teijen 'meGed/— one of the basic methods of phonemic investigation, which consists in the discovery of minimal pairs.
COMPARATIVE PHONETICS /ksm'paarstiv fou'netika/ - this branch of phonetics studies the correlation between the phonetic system of two or more languages,
COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION /,komplementär! /hstn'bju-jW — arrangement of allophones of one and the same phoneme, which occurs in different contexts, but in a definite set of them.
COMPLETE ASSIMILATION /kam'plfct 9,sirm'leijW - assimilation when one of the two adjacent sounds fully coincides with the other. For example: less sugar /lej 'Jugs/.
246
COMPONENT /kam'psunant/ — a part of the whole.
CONSONANT /'krnssnsnt/ — a sound of noise, which is formed by A complete or incomplete obstruction. As a rule, consonants are non-syllabic,
CONSTITUTIVE FUNCTION OF SPEECH SOUNDS /'kunstitjtttiV 'fArjkJsn ev 'spirtf 'saundz/ — the function to constitute the material forms of morphemes, words and sentences.
CONSTRICTIVE FRICATIVE SOUNDS/ksn'stnktiv'frikativ'saundz/— in the articulation of these sounds the air passage is narrowed or constricted to-such an extent that the air passing through it produces noise or friction. No5 resonance is possible in the production of pure fricatives /f, 6, s, J1, h/. Voiced fricatives are produced with an admixture of musical tone, they are: /v, br z, 3/.
CONSTRICTIVE SONANTS /kan'striktiv 'saunants/ (resonants) — in the articulation of these sounds the narrowing for the air passage is not wide enough to eliminate the noise or friction completely; on the other hand it is wide enough to make the cavity function as a resonator. They are: /w, 1, r, j/.
CONTACT /'kxntsekt/ — a closure made by the organs of speech.
CONTIGUOUS /ksn'tigjues/— adjacent or neighbouring syllables or sounds (usually consonants).
CONTINUANTS /kan'tmjuants/ — consonants that can be prolonged during the stop-stage of their articulation. For example: im, n, 1, r, 3/.
CONTOID /ken'toid/ — the term is used by the American linguist K. Pike to characterize noise consonants. ^_
DARK SOUND /'dak 'saund/ — the sound which is made harder due to additional articulatory work — the raising of the back part of the tongue to the soft palate {back secondary focus), [w] and [1] "dark are pronounced with the back secondary focus.
DEFECTS OF SPEECH /di'fekts ev 'spltf/ — drawbacks in pronunciation.
DEFINITION OF A SOUND /,defi'mjan av a 'saund/ — the description of the complex of properties characteristic of a sound, which helps to attribute this sound to a certain type,
DENTAL CONSONANTS /'dentl 'ktnsgnents/— consonants produced with the tip and the blade of the tongue placed against the upper front teeth. For example: It, d, n/,
DEPRESSION OF THE TONGUE /di'prejen ev 6a 'ton/ — low position of the tongue in the mouth cavity.
DESCENDING SCALE /di'sendirj 'skeil/ — gradual lowering of the voice pitch.
DESCRIPTIVE PHONETICS /dis'knphv feu'netiks/ — studies the contemporary phonetic system of a language, i.e. the system of its pronunciation, and gives a description of all the phonetic units of this language,
DEVOICE /di'vois/ — to pronounce with the vocal cords switched cut. Voiced consonants are gradually devoiced in the terminal position and under the influence of the adjacent voiceless consonant (not so much as in the Russian language).
DIACHRONIC APPROACH /,daie'krtmk a'prgutf/ _ analysis of the phenomena which refer to different periods of development,
DIACRITIC MARKS /,daie'krifik 'masks/ — additional symbols used to characterize separate phonemes or their allophones. For examples, the Russian й, the German Ü. Diacritic marks help to use the inventory of the letters of the alphabet, without enlarging it.
DIALECTOLOGY 7,daialek'tolEd3i/ — the branch of phonetics which studies the dialectal differences in pronunciation.
DIAPHONE ['daiafaun/ — allophone of one and the same phoneme, pronounced by different people.
• DIAPHRAGM /'daiafram/ — that part of the power mechanism which separates the cavity of the chest from the abdominal cavity.
247
DICTAPHONE /'diktafsun/ — the apparatus that records and reproduces oral speech.
DICTION /'dikjW — a way of speaking. The selection and control of «words to express ideas (command of vocabulary, grammatical correctness, affective word order, etc.).
DIGRAPH /'daigrcuf/ — combination of two letters equivalent to one phoneme. For example: ее /fc/, sh /J/, th /0, 5/.
DIMINUTION OF INTENSITY /,dimi'n]u>Jan sv m'tensiti/ — lowering of the voice intensity, which results from the gradual weakening of the vocal cords vibration.
DIPHTHONG /'difSDrj/ — a vowel phoneme which consists of two elements: a nucleus and a glide. The first element of a diphthong is more loud and distinct, the formation of the second element of a diphthong is not accomplished. English diphthongs can he normal — this term is used because they are similar to the diphthongs normally occurring in other languages: /ei, ai, 01, аи, au/ and centring: /ia, еэ, ээ, ua/ — they are called so because their glide /a/ is considered to bö a central vowel.
DIPHTHONGIZATION //Ш ongai'zeiJan/ — slight shifting of the organs of speech position within the articulation of one and the same vowel (these organs are mostly — the tongue, the lips and the lower jaw). Diphthongization changes the quality of the sound during its articulation,
DIPHTHONGOIDS /'difÖarjgoids/ — diphthongized sounds. In English they are /!:/ and lal. The /I;/ articulation begins with /i/ which glides up to the l'\l position and ends up in the /j/ position. The /it/ articulation begins with /u/ which glides up to the /u/ position and ends in the /w/ position.
DISCREPANCY /dis'krepansi/ — non-coincidence, divergence of properties.
DISJUNCTIVE QUESTION /dis'dsAnktiv 'kwestjan/ — a question which consists of two parts, characterized by the succession of falling and rising tones (nuclear or terminal), used to express alternative ideas.
DISSIMILATION /,disimi'leijW — substitution of one sound for another, similar in tamber but different] articulatorily: пролубь, лыцарь instead of прорубь, рыцарь.
DISTINCTIVE FUNCTION OF SPEECH SOUNDS /dis'tirjktiv ЧлпкХэп av 'spJitf 'saundz/ — it is manifested most conspicuously in minimal pairs when the opposition of speech sounds is the only phonetic means of distinguishing one member of that pair from the other.
DISTRIBUTIONAL ANALYSIS /^istn'bjutfangl a'naälisis/ — this meth-od helps to establish the distribution of speech sounds, i.e. all the positions or combinations in which each speech sound of a given language occurs (or does not occur) in the words of the language.
DISYLLABIC /'disi'lffibik/ - consisting of two syllables.
DORSAL CONSONANTS /'dasl 'konsanonts/ — pronounced with the blade the tongue against either the upper teeth or the alveolar ridge. For example: Russian /t/.
DORSUM /'do:sam/ — back.
DORSUM OF THE TONGUE /'dasam эч бэ 'Urj/ — the middle and back parts of the tongue.
DOUBLE STRESS /'diibl 'stres/ — two stresses within one and the same word, e.g. disagree /'diss'grt/.
DRAWL /drwl/ — to pronounce slowly.
DURATION /djua'reifan/ - length.
DYNAMIC ACCENT /dai'nasmik 'ffiksant/— force accent based mainly on the expiratory effort.
EAR TRAINING /'la'tremin/ - training of the ear in differentiating and distinguishing phonetic phenomena.
EDGES OF THE TONGUE /'etfeiz av 5a 'Urj/ — the rims ol the tongue.
243
ELISION /i'Ii3sn/ — dropping off of a vowel in initial or terminal position. For example: 'tis instead of if is, th' eternal instead of the eternal.
EMOTION /i'msujan/ — display of excitation, irritation, joy and other feelings. In speech they are expressed by different phonetic and lexicostylistic means, such as emphatic stress, emphatic intonation, etc.
EMPHASIS /'emfesis/ — combination of the expressive means of the language to single out emphatic words, groups of words or whole sentences.
EMPHATIC /im'fffitik/ — that which refers to emphasis,
ENCLITIC /m'khtik/ — unstressed word or syllable, which refers to the preceding stressed word or syllable. For example: be, not in 'may be, 'cannot Together with the stressed word enclitics form one phonetic unit.,
EPENTHESIS /e'penössis/ — the occurrence of a sound in a word, in which it is not pronounced. For example: length may be pronounced as/Ierj(k)8/, glimpse — as /ghm(p)s/ with the epenthetic /k/ and /p/.
EXHALATION /^kshe'leijen/— breathing the air out of the lungs and the mouth cavity.
EXHALE /eks'heil/ — to breathe the[air out of the lungs and the mouth cavity.
EXPERIMENTAL PHONETICS /eks,pen'mentl fsu'netiks/ — the branch of phonetics which studies phonetic phenomena through observation and calculations with the help of different apparatus and devices'.
EXPIRATION /.ekspai'reijen/ — breathing the air out. See EXHALA-TJON. .
EXPLOSION /iks'plsussn/, or plosion /'ркизгп/^-nofse made by the air, when it is suddenly released through a ccmplete obstruction. The sounds /p, t, k/ are pronounced with a plosion, or explosion.
EXPRESSION /iks'prejW — thoughts and emotions expressed by words end i tonation.
FACULTATIVE PHONEMES /'fsfcsltativ 'faunlmz/ — such phonemes inJEnglish are Ы and /ээ/. They are not used in all idiolects, where they are replaced by /w,»/. But in those idiolects in which they are used they may distinguish words in minimal pairs, e.g. which — который, witch —- ведьма, more — больше, maw — пасть.
PALL /Ы/ — lowering of the voice pitch within a stressed syllable,
FAMILY OF^SOUNDS /'famuli ev 'saundz/ — D. Jones' term in his phoneme definition,
FAUCAL CONSONANTS /'fokal, 'kxnssnants/ — occlusive noise consonants which are articulated by the soft palate raised against the back wall of the pharynx, which is accompanied by a nasal plosion and results in opening the nasal cavity for the flow of air. Combinatory allophones,articulated in that manner are [t] in the word button or the Russian [6] in обман.
FIXED ORGANS OF SPEECH /'fikst 'otgsnz'av 'spW/, —they are: the upper teeth and the teethridge, the hard palate and the pharyngeal wall.
FIXED WORD,ACCENT /'fikst 'ws:d 'absent/ — this type of accent is
characterized by the fixed position, of stress. ' ' . ^
FLAPPED CONSONANTS /'flsept 'komssnents/ — articulated by a single tap of the tip of the tongue against the teethridge. For example: [r] in sorry, very.
FLAT NARROWING /'flset 'naramrj/ — passage for the flow of air, which is m°« »г less flat. The sounds /f, v/ are pronounced with the flat narrowing.
FLOW OF AIR /'flau sv W —the stream of air.
FOCUS /'fsukss/ (pi. FOCI /'fsusai/) — the place in the mouth cavity,
in which the obstruction (complete or incomplete) is formed in the articulation
of a consonant. Front secondary focus is formed by the middle part of the tongue
raised against the hard palate. Back secondary focus is formed by the back part
of the tongue raised against the soft palate. ?•"
FORELINGUAL /'blingwal/ — articulated by the tip'of the tongue raised agams,t the upper teeth or the teethridge. For example: /t, d, n/are lore-lingual consonants.;
249
FORMANTS /'foments/ — the regions of the spectrogram, which are correlated with the qualities of vowels or their tembral characteristics.
FORTIS /'foctia/ — strong.
FORTIS CONSONANTS ['tehs 'kpnsanants/ — voiceless plosives and constrictives, which are pronounced with strong muscular tension and strong expiratory effort (compare with Ienis consonants). The consonants /f, p, if are fortis.
FREE ACCENTUAL VARIANTS /'frt ajk'sentjual 'vsariants/— they are variants of individual pronunciation — interidmlectal variants. E.g. 'hospitable, hos'pitabte,' рапорт, рапорт.
FREE VARIATIONS — intraidiolectal and interidiolectal variations which are spontaneous, unintentional, non-functional, non-distinctive.
FREE WORD ACCENT /'Frt 'wa:d 'asksant/ — the type of accent which is characterized by the free accidence of the word accent; in different words of the language different syllables can be stressed — the first, the second, the third. Free word accent has two subtypes: a) constant, which always remains on the same morpheme: wonder, wonderfully and b) shifting, which changes its place: сад, садовод.
FRICATIVE CONSONANTS /'fnkativ 'künsanants/ - produced by friction of the flow of air through the narrowing formed by articulatory organs. For example: /v, s. z/.
FRICriONLESS /'frik/anlrs/ — produced without any audible friction.
FRICTIONLESS CONTINUANTS /'fnkfanlis kan'trajuants/— the term may be used in reference to constrictive sonants /w, r, j/, which are pronounced with little noise and can be prolonged or continued. "A consonant having the articulation of a fricative but pronounced with weak force so that little or no friction is audible." (D. Jones)
FRONT OF THE TONGUE /'frAnt sv 9э Члп/ — the blade and the tip of the tongue. The blade and the middle of the tongue in the terminology of English phoneticians,
FRONT-RETRACTED VOWELS /'frAtit n'trsktid 'vaualz/ — produced with the front but a bit retracted position of the bulk of the tongue. The vowel /i/ is a front-retracted sound. It is retracted in comparison with the vowel /k/ which is fully front. The nucleus of the diphthong /au/ is also front-retracted.
FRONT VOWELS /'fmnt 'vaualz/ — vowels articulated when the bulk of the tongue moves forward and its front part is raised highest towards the hard palate: /fc, i, e, ae/ and the nuclei of the diphthongs /ia, ei, еэ, ai, au/.
FULLY VOICED /'fuh 'voist/ — consonants pronounced with the vocal cords vibrating from the first to the last stage of their articulation.
FUNCTIONAL /'lAnkJanl/ — phonological, connected with differentia-tory function.
FUNCTIONAL PHONETICS /'fAukJanl fau'netiks/ - the branch of phonetics which studies the purely linguistic aspect of speech sounds,
FUNCTIONS OF A PHONEME /'lAnkJanz av э 'faunfcm/ — in speech a phoneme performs three functions: 1. distinctive, 2. constitutive and 3. re-cognitive; they are inseparable.
FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY /Дп da'mental 'frtkwansi/ - the frequency of the vibrations of the vocal cords over their whole length.
FUNDAMENTAL TONE /,knda'raentl 'taun/ - the sound wave which results from the vibrations oE the whole physical body and which has the lowest frequency.
G
GENERAL AMERICAN, G.A. /'cfcenaral e'raenkon/ - the most widespread type of educated American speech.
GENERAL PHONETICS /'dgeneral fou'netiks/ — analysis, description, and comparison of phonetic phenomena in different languages.
GENERAL PHONOLOGICAL RULES /'азепэгэ! yfauna'bdgrksl 'rulz/ — these rules make it possible to establish the phonemic status of sounds without direct reference to their distribution; they are; 1. the law of great phonemic dissimilarity; 2. the law of conditioned allophonic similarity.
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GENERAL QUESTION /'cfcenaral 'kwestjW — the type of a question which demands a yes or no answer, it is pronounced with the rising tone.
GLIDE /glaid/ — that part of a diphthong which constitutes its additional element, the full articulation of which is not accomplished. For example: hi and hi in /ai, ei, is, еэ/ are glädes.
GLOTTAL SOUND /'glutl 'saund/ — when the glottis is narrowed during exhalation, the air, passing out of the mouth cavity, produces an /h/ like sound; that is why /h/ is considered by Prof. A. L. Trakhterov and British and American phoneticians to be a glottal or laryngeal consonant (not a pharyngeal one).
GLOTTAL STOP /'glut! 'sttp/ — a sound which reminds a slight cough and is articulated by the vocal cords, before a vowel sound is heard, in cases of emphatic speech.
GLOTTIS /'gltitis/ — the space between the vocal cords, which is the entrance to the trachea, or the windpipe.
GRAPHEME /'grssffcm/ — an orthographic unit with which a phoneme can be correlated, e.g. t, e, n are graphemes in ten.
GROOVE-SHAPED DEPRESSION /'gruv 'jeipt di'prejen/ is formed in the middle part of the blade of the tongue in the articulation of Is, z/.
H
HARD PALATE /'had 'pmhtl ~ the roof of the mouth.
HEAD /hed/ — stressed syllables preceding the nucleus together with the intervening unstressed syllables.
■ HEIGHT /halt/ — the width of the resonating cavity in the articulation of vowels.
HEIGHT OF THE TONGUE /'hait av бэ 'W — the height to which the bulk of the tongue is raised and which determines the level of the raised bulk of the. tongue: high, mid, or low.
HETEROGENEITY /.hetarabi'nfciti/ — mutually differentiating properties1 in the sounds which are compared.
HETEROGRAPHY /,het9'rt graft] — the use of similar letters for different sounds, for example the letter с corresponds to the sound /k/ in the word can and to the sound /s/ in city.
HIATUS /hai'eitas/ — combination of two vowels which belong to different syllables, For example: doirtg/'dmrj/ — internal hiatus, to order /tu 'o:ds/ — external hiatus.
HIEROGLYPH /'haiaraghf] — a written sign which may be equivalent to a sound, syllable, or a whole notion.
HIGH-PJTCHED SOUND /'hai 'pitjt 'saund/ — a sound, which is high in tone.
HIGH POSITION OF THE TONGUE /'hai ps'zijan sv öa 'tArj/—the position when the dorsum and the front part of the tongue are raised high to the roof of the mouth, but not so high as to produce an audible friction. High narrow vowels /'hai 'nasrau 'vauslz/ /!:, и, ы, у/ are pronounced with the bulk of the tongue raised more higher than for /i, u/, which also belong to the group of high vowels but to their broad variety.
HIGH SPEED X-RAY PHOTOGRAPHY /'hai 'spM 'eks'rei ШтэдгэЫ -one of the methods used in experimental phonetics, wnich consists in the photography of X-rayed organs of speech in the process of articulation,
HISS /his/ — noise produced when the air passes through a round narrowing and produces hissing noise. The sounds /s, J1/ are hissing consonants.
HISTORICAL ASSIMILATION /his'tunksl a^imi'leijen/ — sound changes, which are the result of the historical development of the language.
HISTORICAL PHONETICS /his'tunkalГ fau'netiks/ - that branch of phonetics, which studies phonetic components on the diachronic level; it is a part of the history of a language, which studies the history of the development of the phonetic laws,
HOLD /hsuld/ — the second stage of a single sound articulation (retention, central, medial stage).
HOMOGENEITY /#hum9d3&'nhti/ — articulatory similarity of two ■sounds, which is based on similar articulatory work of the speech organs. The
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sounds /p, b/ are homogeneous because they are both plosive and bilabial noise consonants.
HOMOGRAPHS /'hnmagrcufs/ — words'.that are similar in orthography but different in pronunciation and meaning^ For example: tear /tea/ разрывать and tear /tia/ слеза.
HOMOPHONES /'hnmafaunz/ — words that are similar in pronunciation but different in orthography and meaning. For example: air — hair воздух — волосы; buy — bye покупать — что-л. маловажное; knight — night рыцарь — ночь; not — knot нет — узел; or — ore либо — руда.
HYPHEN /'haifan/ — a graphic sign which serves to show syllabic boundary.
IDEOGRAM /'idja(u)graem/ — 1. a symbol or a picture which represents and conveys an idea of an object without using its name, for example: a numerical or a pictorial road sign; 2. a symbol representing a word, but not the sounds which constitute it.
IDIOLECT /'idraulekt/ — the individual speech of a member of a language community.
IDIOPHONE /,idia'foun/ — one and the same speech sound which is pronounced differently in different idiolects.
IMPEDE /im'plid/ — hinder or bar (articulation, a stream of air, etc.).
IMPLOSION /im'plsu3an/ — the first stage of a single plosive Sound articulation.
INALIENABLE (INDISPENSABLE, CONCOMITANT) FEATURES /m-'eiljanabl, ,irtdis'pensebl, kan'komitant 'ffctjW — these features are always present in all the allophones of a phoneme, e.g. two foci in /J, 3, w, 1/ articulation, lip rounding in /us/ articulation. They may be distinctively relevant and irrelevant, e.g. seem vs. theme, /s—9/ are opposed due to the flat, round narrow* ing difference, in same vs. fame the shape of the narrowing is irrelevant, /s—f/ are opposed due to the place of articulation difference.
INHALATION /jinha'leijW — breathing the air in.
INITIAL PHASE /t'ntXal 'feiz/ — the first phase of a sound articulation. - INSTRUMENTAL PHONETICS /,mstru'mentl fau'netiks/ — different techniques and devices used In experimental phonetics.
INTERALLOPtfON 1С ALTERNATION /rintergle'ieunik,oiIt9:'iHH,ren/ — alternation between different allophones of one and the same phoneme, e.g. /n/ alveolar alternates with /n/ dentaf In nine — ninth.
INTERCOMMUNICATION /'intako.mjuaii'keijW — giving or passing information by means of oral speech.
INTERDENTAL ARTICULATION /.mta'dentl o.-,tikj4i'leijW — articulation characterized by the interdental position of the tip of the tongue in articulating/9, 5/. In speech these sounds are often pronounced as dental, with the tip of the tongue placed behind the upper teeth.
INTERIDIOLECTAL PHONETIC VARIATIONS /7inta(:),idiau'Iekt9l fau'netik jVsan'etJsnz/ — variations in the pronunciation of one and the same phoneme, word of sentence in the same phonetic context and the same style of speech by different speakers of the language.
INTERMITTENT CLOSURE /;Tnta'mitent 'к!эиза/ - this type of closure is formed when the tip of the tongue is rapidly tapping against the teethridge as in the articulation of trilled, or rolled /p/.
INTERPHONEMIC ALTERNATION /.mtefau'niimik /»Its:'net Jan/ -> alternation between different phonemes, which are represented by their different ailophones, e.g. /as/ alternates with /e/ in man — men.
INTONATION /,tnteu'neif9n/ — a component of the phonetic structure which is viewed in the narrow meaning as pitch variations, or speech melody. It manifests itself in the del imitative function within a sentence and at its end; see PROSODIC FEATURES.
INTONATION GROUP /.mteu'neijen 'amp/ — an actualized sensa group.
INTONEME /'rnbtmfcnt/ — a phonological unit created by two or more
252
components of intonation, or by a combination of various types of tonemes or accenteraes, e.g. What difficulty? What difficulty/ These two sentences are pronounced with two different intonemes.
INTRAIDIOLECTAL PHONETIC VARIATIONS /'intra,idiau'Iektel fau'netik /vsan'eijanz/ — variations In the pronunciation of one and the same speaker, i.e. within one and the same idiolect. They are of two types: free variations and those conditioned by different styles of pronunciation — stylistic Variations.
INTRUSIVE SOUNDS /m'trissiv 'saundz/ — alien to the word. For example: /'himpjudant/ instead of /'impjudant/; /'pleijirj/ instead of /'plenrj/; (''dra-msr and 'mjuszik/ instead of /'drcuma and 'mjttzik/.
INVENTORY OF PHONEMES /'mventn av 'feuntmz/ — in the English language the inventory of segmental phonemes consists of 25 consonant and 21 vowel phonemes. In the Russian language there are 36 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.
IRRELEVANT FEATURES /I'reltveni 'tttfez/ — different articulatory and acoustic features of speech sounds, which do not make them allophones of different phonemes, e.g, partial devoicing of terminal voiced consonants, variation in the positional length of vowels.
JAWBREAKER /'dä^brerka/ — a word, which is difficult to pronounce.
JAWS /d3o;z/ — parts of the mouth, which bear teeth and by means of which the mouth can be opened and closed.
JONES' VOWEL TRAPEZIUM /'d39Unzi2 'vaugl tra'pfczjam/ — Jones* system of vowels based on 8 cardinaljpoints of articulation; see CARDINAL VOWELS.
JUNCTION /'d^rjkjen/ — the joining of two sounds or words.
JUNCTURE /'ДзлпЩэ/ — the place, where two sounds .or words are joined together,
JUNCTURE PHONEME /'ctäArjktfa 'bunfcm/ — the syllabic boundary at the junction of words or morphemes that can be characterized by distinctive difference, e.g. a name — an aim. Open or plus juncture is marked by /+/: a + name, an -f- aim
К
KINETIC /kai'netik/ — relating to motion, producing motion. KYMOGRAPH /'kaimagra-f/ — the apparatus used to record speech sounds graphically. Kymograms help to ascertain the quality of various sounds
L
LABIAL /'Ieibial/ — relating to the lips.
LABIAL SOUNDS /'leibial ?saundz/ — articulated by the Hps. For example: /p, b/.
LABIALIZATION /,Ieibiatai'zeijW — Up rounding.
LABIALIZED VOWELS /'leibialaizd 'vaugla/ — vowels produced with a more or lessJip rounding. For example: /о, у, №, », ■», u/.
LARYNGEAL /,lserin'азЫ, 1д'пп^э1/ - of or pertaining to the larynx.
| observe the vocal cords epiglottis, and the glottis. _ о LARYNX /'Ianrjks/ — an organ of the respiratory tract above the windpipe. It consists of an elaborate arrangement of cartilage and muscles and contains a pair of vocal cords. |
LARYNGOSCOPE /U'ringaskaup/ -- laryngeal mirror, which helps to
| LATERAL /'lateral/ — having to do with the sides of the tongne. LATERAL SOUNDS /'lastaral 'saundz/ - sounds in the articulation of which the air passages (or passage) are formed at the lateral sides of the tongue. At the same time the contact is made by the tip of the tongue pressed against |
LATERAL SOUNDS
ch the air passages (or j
... the same time the con1.«».. ,e Ul[,uc
the teethridge as In /I/ articulation. ' "
LAW OF CONDITIONED ALLOPHONIC SIMILARITY /'la av ken'di-Jand ,sels fünik jSimi'lsenti/ — two more or less similar sounds, which are at
253
the same time more or less different, are allophones of the same phoneme, if their difference is due to non-distinctive factors.
LAW OF GREAT PHONEMIC DISSIMILARITY /'lar. av 'greit fau'nimik jdisimi'lsnti/ — entirely different sounds such as a vowel and a consonant cannot be allophones of the same phoneme.
LAWS OF PHONEMIC AND ALLOPHONIC DISTRIBUTION /'bz sv fau'nfcmik and ,aela'fiomk ,distn'bju:j3ri/ — 1. if different speech sounds occur in the same phonetic context', they are allophones of different phonemes; 2. if similar speech sounds occur in different positions and never occur in the same phonetic context, they are variants of one and the same phoneme.
LAX VOWELS /'lseks 'vauslz/ — vowels in the articulation of which the muscular tension of the tongue, lips, and the walls of the resonating cavities is not so great as in the articulation of tense vowels. Compare: /i, u, ю/ and /tf u, o:/.
LENGTH OF THE SOUND /'Ierj9 av 8э 'saund/ — length of the sound; waves in the articulation of a sound.
LENIS /'Itais/ (pi. LENES /'li:ni:z/) — pronounced with weak articulation: /b, d, z, 9, v, Ö, 3, 03/.
LENITION /li'mjan/ — gradual weakening in the articulation, LESSEN /'lesn/ — to make less. For example, lessen the length, lotidness or tension of sounds.
LETTERS /'letsz/ — printed or written symbols of an alphabet used in representing speech sounds.
LEVEL TONE /'levl 'tsim/ — tone neutral in its communicative function,. which is used mostly in poetry.
LIAISON /lfc'eizurj/ — in the English language cases of liaison are the "intrusive" /r/ or the pronunciation of In/ in an indefinite article when it is followed by a vowel: an apple /an 'sepl/.
LIGHT /lait/ — in phonetics this term Is equivalent to clear. LINGUAL /'hrjgwal/ — articulated with the help of the tongue. For example, It! is a lingual sound because it is articulated with the tip of the tongue pressed against the teethridge.
LINGUAPHONE /'hngwsfaun/ — having to do with teaching languages-with the help of phonetics.
LINGUAPHONE CLASS /'lirjgwafaun 'klcus/ — class equipped with magnetic tape recorders, gramophones and earphones used for listening and reproducing foreign texts.
LINGUISTIC FUNCTIONS /hrj'gwistik 'Unkjanz/ - in phonetics they are connected with phonemic, significative properties of sound, syllable, stress, and intonation.
LIP POSITIONS /'lip pa'zijanz/ — different positions of Hps, which change the articulation of sounds and their tamber. The main positions of the lips are: rounded, as in Ы articulation, unrounded, as in hi articulation, protruded, as in /y/ articulation, non-protruded as in /e/ articulation, spread as in /i=/ articulation, neutral as in /э/ articulation.
* LIPS /lips/ — two muscular folds bordering the mouth; in articulatory phonetics referred to as "upper" and "lower lip".
LIQUID CONSONANTS /'Iikwrd 'ktmssnants/ — some phoneticians use .this term to characterize the sounds /3, r/.
LISP /hsp/ — to pronounce /8/ instead of /s/ and /Ö/ instead of /z/. LITERARY PRONUNCIATION /'htaren pr©,r»Ansi'eiJen/: RP PRONUNCIATION (RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION) or PUBLIC SCHOOL PRONUNCIATION — the pronunciation of educated people in Southern England. LOCAL DIFFERENCES /'Isukel 'difarsnsiz/ — dialectal differences im the pronunciation of the same sounds or words.
LOGICAL STRESS l'lvdßiksl 'stres/ — the singling out of the word, which seems to be most important in the sentence.
LOGOGRAM /Чюдэдгэет/ — an arbitrary symbol (in shorthand, for instance) representing a complete word.
LOGOPAEDIC //bgeWptdik/ - having to do with the correction of speech defects.
254
LOGOPAEDICS /,kig3(u)'pl:diks/ — a branch of phonetics, which studies speech defects and the ways of correcting them.
LONG VOWELS /'1гц 'vaualz/ — in English they are /I:, се, а, з:, ml.
LOOSE NEXUS /'Ins 'neksas/ — loose connection between a long monophthong or a diphthong and a consonant which follows it. For example: /t -j-z/ an the word bees,
LOOSE TRANSITION /'lus tr«en'si3an/ — articulation of two neighbouring sounds -when the final stage of the first sound is not affected by the initial stage of the second sound, e.g. /'aisbwg/ compare with the Russian [збор] — «lose transition.
LOSS /Ids/ — in phonetics it is absence of some articulatory work. Loss <of plosion, sound, etc., e.g. act — loss of plosion in /k/.
LOUD /laud/ — producing a powerful stimulus on the ear.
LOUDSPEAKER /'laudspfcka/ — a device that converts electrical impulses into sounds loud enough to be heard some distance away,
LOWER TEETH, LIP, JAW /'1эиэ 'ti:9, 'lip. '(&:/ — all these organs are ■more active and important in the process of articulation than the upper jaw, lip, teeth.
LOW LEVEL TONE /'lau 'levl 'taun/ — characterizes unstressed but prominent syllables of parenthetic groups or long tails.
LOW-NARROW VOWELS /'1эи 'паэгэи 'vaualz/ — these vowels are
'/Л, О:/.
LOW PITCH /'1эи 'pitj1/ — low tone. It is usually used in the narrow range <of tone-pitch.
LOW VOWELS /'1эи 'vaualz/ — vowels pronounced with the low position •of the bulk of the tongue. For example: /as, ъ, ге, л,о.-/./л, к/ belong to low vowels of narrow variety, /se, a(i, и), си, u/ belong to low vowels of broad variety. /eb, a(i, u)/ are low front vowels, /л, о:, си, W are low back vowels.
. LUNGS /Unz/ — the source of the air stream that makes it possible to produce sounds. The latter also regulate the force of the air pressure and produce ■vibrations in the intensity of speech sounds.
M
MAGNETIC TAPE RECORDER /mseg'netik 'teip n'tada/ — the apparatus that converts sounds into electrical signals and then into variations in ihe magnetization of a wire or tape of magnetic material. A similar system has been devised for operation with a television camera, recording television pictures as magnetic information which may be used later to reproduce the images «(videotape).
MEDIA /'mirdjs/ tot. MEDIAE) /'medjls/ see LENIS.
MEDIAL./'mfcdjsl/ — passing through the middle of the air-passage.
MEDIAL SONANTS /Wdjal 'sounants/ — sounds articulated with the air-passage through the middle part of the tongue. For example: /w, r. j/.
MEDIOLINGUAL CONSONANTS /'mi:dJ9(u)hna.wal 'k«nsanants/ — con
sonants articulated with the help of the middle part of the tongue. To this group
belong English /J/ and Russian /й/, , .
MELODY /'metsdi/ — changes in the voice pitch in the process of speech.
MEMBERS OF A PHONEME /'membaz av a 'feunfera/ - positional and •combinatory allophones belonging to the "family of one and the same sound ■{D, Jones),
MERGING OF STAGES /'ma:d3in av 'steicfeiz/ - coincidence of the last
■stage of the first sound in the articulation of a word with the first stage of the
-second sound. Merging of stages usually takes place when sounds of a different
•nature are joined, for example /I + i + t/ in the word lit. , , ,.
METHOD OF MINIMAL PAIRS /'meOad av 'minimal 'psez/ - the discovery of as many pairs of words as possible, that differ in one phoneme. It is based on the substitution of one sound for another, commutation.
| ISTINCTIVE OPPOSITIONS ZmeGad jUpa'ziJ'anz/ — this method enables to prove whether the phonetic difference is relevant or not. 255 |
METHOD OF DISTINCTIVE OPPOSITIONS Z'meGad av dis'tinktiv
'J'/ thi thd b t h hti diffnce
METHODS OF PHONETIC ANALYSIS /'meÖadz av fau'netik a'nssh-
sis/ — different methods used in the stujJy and investigation of different pho
netic -phenomena. '
METRONOME /'metranaum/ -/a clockwork device with a moving; audible indicator, which can be regulated to different speeds and used to mark-equal periods. It is used in phonetics to teach rhythm.
MICROPHONE /'maikrsfatm/ — an instrument, which amplifies and transmits sounds.
MID /mid/ — neither high nor low position of the bulk of the tongue when, it moves in the vertical direction. In Jones' classification mid corresponds ta hall-close and half-open. Mid vowels are: /e, з:, э, э(и), е(э}/.
MID BACK VOWELS /'mid 'Ьгек 'vauslz/ — the nucleus of the diphthong, /ou/ and the Russian /of.
MID CENTRAL VOWELS /'mid 'sentral 'yaualz/ — Ы and /a/ in'the-terminology given by British phoneticians. Russian authorities define them as-mid, mixed.
MID FRONT VOWELS /'mid 'frjint 'vau9lz/ - /e/, the first element o£ the diphthong /еэ/ and the Russian /э/.
MID NARROW VOWELS /'mid 'n«rau 'vauslz/ — /e/, Ы and the first element of the diphthongs /эй/ and le.il.
MID WIDE VOWELS /'mid 'waid 'vaualz/ — /э/ and the first element of the diphthong /е(э)/.
MIDDLE PART OF THE TONGUE /'midl 'pcut av бэ 'tAn/ — the centrar part of the dorsum of the tongue which is opposite the hard palate. It lies between the blade and the back of the tongue. This term is widely used in our terminology. The middle of the tongue plays an important role in the process of. palatalization. In the terminology given by some foreign phoneticians the term "middle" is used in reference to the border between the predorsal (that is front> and dorsal (that is middle and back) part of the tongue; according to their terminology the middle part of the tongue corresponds to the term "front part of the tongue",
MIDDLE PHASE /'midl 'feiz/ —the second phase of articulation, or the hold-
MINIMAL DISTINCTIONS /'minimal disMinkj-gnz/ - the smallest differences, that help to recognize and differentiate words.
MINIMAL PAIR /'minimal 'pea/ — a pair the distinctive differences between the members of which are based upon one distinctive difference. The pair pill — bill is minimal, because its members are differentiated due to /p — b/ phonemes, their fortis /p/ — lenis 1Ы distinctions.
MISPRONOUNCE /'mispra'nauns/ — to pronounce sounds or words with-, mistakes.
MISTAKES IN PRONUNCIATION /mis'teiks in prs,nAnsr'eiJan/ — different deviations from the teaching norm in the pronunciation of a foreign language. Academician L. V. Shcherba suggested that mistakes should be divided into 1. phonological (altering the meaning of words) and 2, non-phonological, (that do not affect the meaning of words).
MIXED VOWELS — G. P. Torsuyev defines them in the following way: «тело языка приподнято, причем вся спинка языка лежит максимально-плоско». They are /з;, э/.
MODIFICATIONS IN CONTEXT /jmudifi'keifanz in 'ktsntekst/ — sound' changes in context. Positional and combinatory modifications of phonemes in. connected speech,
t MONOPHTHONG /'тттвГввп/ — a vowel sound in the articulation oi: which the articulating organs are more or less stable, which results In the stationary nature of the vowel, English monophthongs are /i, e, аэ, си, ъ, <$, u, л,, з:, а/.
MONOPHTHONGIZE /'mtinafe-ongaiz/ — to acquire equal quality. _ MONOSYLLABISM /'muna'silabizm/ — linguistic phenomenon characterized by monosyllables. Monosyllabism is characteristic of the English language..
MONOSYLLABLE /'imma'silebl/ — a word consisting of one syllable..
MONOTONE /'munatsun/ — equal tone, lacking the necessary variations in the voice pitch.
556
MONOTONOUS /ma'ntitsnas/ — pronounced with equal tone.
MORA /'more/ (pi. MORAE I'vmti) — the length of one short syllable
■which was considered the unit of length in the antique versification; so the
length of a long syllable was equal to two rooras. . . . .
MORPHOGRAPH /'mafsgraf/ — separate graphemic unit which is a graphemic reflex of a morpheme.
MORPHOPHONOLOGY /.nrafufs'nulafei/ — this branch of phonology studies the distribution of morphologically correlated sounds in order to establish their phonemic status.
t MOUTH /mau6/ — the cavity in the head containing the teeth, the tongue and the palate with the uvula.
* MOUTH CAVITY /'mau8 'kseviti/— the cavity between the teeth and
the pharynx, ,
MOUTHPIECE /'mauOpiis/ — the part of the kymograph which is applied
to the mouth. • ,
MOVABLE ORGANS OF SPEECH /'nravabl 'tcgenz av 'spfctf/— the organs of speech that move during articulation: the lips, the lower jaw, the tongue, the soft palate with the uvula, the back wall of the pharynx.
MURMUR /'ma:ma/ — soft speech, sometimes indistinct.
MURMURED VOWELS /'m8:mad 'vaualz/ — obscure vowels.
MUTATION /mju:'teijan/ — umlaut.
MUTE LETTERS /'mjwt 'letez/ — letters, or letter combinations which are not pronounced, but remain in words due to traditional spelling rules.
MUTUAL ASSIMILATION /'mjtttfual s^imi'leijen/ — bilateral assimilation, when two assimilating sounds equally influence each other. For example, bilateral assimilation of /s/ + /J/ results in /J/: issue /'isju — '1Ш — 'iW.
MUTUALLY DISTINCTIVE SOUNDS /'mJtrtjiiBli dis'tinktiv 'saundz/ -the sounds that belong to different phonemes and are realizations, variants or allophones of different phonemes, e.g. /b, p/ in park — bark, r i
MYOKINETIC ANALYSIS /'maie(u)kai'nefik e'nehsis/—'a complex of. different analyses that are carried out to study muscular — kinetic work of speech organs,
N
NARROW /'naersu/ — the variety of high, mid, and low positions of the bulk of the tongue when it moves in the vertical direction. See HIGH-NARROW, MID-NARROW, LOW-NARROW.
NARROW PASSAGE /'гш-au 'pjesKb/ — the term is conventional and
characterizes the state of the passage for the flow of air in the articulation of
vowels or consonants. For example, the air passage is narrow in 1Ы articulation
and it is also narrow in /s/ articulation. _ .„,
NARROW RANGE /'пазгэи 'reindg/ (see WIDE RANGE, MEDIUM
RANGE) — if the range of the voice pitch is represented by two horizontal
parallel lines 10 mm wide, then the head syllable of the) wide range utterance
will be arbitrarily represented by a dash 2 mm from the top range line. The
head syllable of the narrow range will be repreaenied by a dash 2 mm frcm
the bottom range line. The head syllable of medium range will be represented
by a dash 6 mm from the bottom range line. ,
NARROW TRANSCRIPTION /'шегеи ,tr sens'Imp jW — the system of transcription signs into which additional symbols are included which correspond to allophones of seme phonemes.
NARROWING /'nserauin/ — a passage of small width or length. Narrow-ings can be formed by the lips, or the tongue and the palate (its front, mid or back part).
NARROWING THE RANGE /'nasreuin 8в 'renufe/ — characterizes emphatic speech which is uttered within the limits of narrow range.
NASAL CAVITY /'neizl 'ksaviti/ — immovable cavity inside the nose and the nasopharynx; it is separated from the mouth cavity by the upper jaw with the teethridge and the palate,
NASAL SONANTS /'neizl 'saunents/ — they are articulated with the blocked passage for the flow of air through the mouth cavity. This is effected by lowering the soft palate. Nasal sonants are Im, a, rj/,
257
NASAL PHARYNX /'neizl 'faenrjks/ (nasopharynx) — the upper part of the pharynx 4 cm long. It is situated above the soft palate.
NASAL PLOSION /'neizl 'рЬизэпА — plosion formed when the soft palate is separated from the back wall of the nasal pharynx and the air quickly escapes through the nasal cavity; it takes place in the combinations like /tn, dn/.
NASAL TWANG /'ne:zl 'twserj/ is characteristic of American pronunciation and results from the laxness of the soft palate which does not cover the nasal cavity completely and the air escapes partly through the narrowing formed.
NASAL VOWELS /'neizl 'vaualz/ — vowels articulated when the flow of air is directed from the lungs both through the mouth and the nasal cavity. Nasal vowels exist in the French language.
NASALIZATION /,neiatai'zeijan/ — nasal twang.
NEIGHBOURING SOUND /'neibanrj 'saund/ — adjacent sound, that ■which follows.
NEUTRAL POSITION /'njistrsl pa'zijgn/ — the position when the tongue is equally removed from front, back, high, and low positions.
NEUTRAL VOWEL /'njutral 'vaual/ — a mixed vowel of mid-open position, broad variety — /э/.
NEUTRALIZATION /(njictralai'zeij'an/ — the loss of qualitative and tembral characteristics of vowel sounds in unstressed positions.
NEXUS /'neksas/ — articulatory dependence between a vowel and consonant. See CLOSE NEXUS, LOOSE NEXUS.
NOISE /noiz/ — characterizes consonants, which are formed when the flow of air passes through a narrowing and produces audible friction. Voiceless consonants are "pure" noises, and voiced consonants are a combination of noise and voice, produced by the vocal cords, which are drawn together and vibrate.
NON-DISTINCTIVE SPEECH SOUNDS /'nmdis'tirjktiv 'spttf 'saundz/ — similar sounds which occur in different positions and are incapable of being opposed to each other in minimal pairs, e.g. /k/ in cool, school, looked.
NON-FINAL /'non'faml/ — not terminal, followed by a sound, a word, a group of words.
NUCLEAR TONE /'nju&lia Чэип/ — the tone associated with the nucleus of a sense-group is a nuclear tone. In RP they are the following: the high falling, the low falling, the high rising, the low rising, the rising-falling, the falling-rising, the rising-falling-rising, the level tone.
NUCLEUS OF A DIPHTHONG /'njtckhas 9V э 'dif8ürj/ (pl. NUCLEI /'njakliai/) — that part of the diphthong, which is more prominent. For example, the nuclei of /ai, ei/ are /a, e/.
NUCLEUS OF A SENSE-GROUP /'njuklias av a 'sens'gricp/ — the last stressed syllable of a sense-group.
OBSOLETE /'ubsalfct/ — not used nowadays.
OBSTRUCTION /ab'strAkJan/ ~ in articulation it is either a narrowing (incomplete obstruction) or a complete closure of the speech organs (complete obstruction).
OCCLUSION /э'к1шзэп/ — a complete obstruction made by the speech organs, as in /p, t, k/.
OCCLUSIVE /o'klissiv/ — the sounds pronounced when the air on its way out breaks up a complete obstruction. Occluslve consonants are 1. /p, b, t, d, k, g/ — stop or plosives and 2. sonorants /m, n, n/ — nasals (see PLOSIVE CONSONANTS).
OCCURRENCE /s'kArans/ — frequency with which sounds, phonemes, or words are used,
OFF-GLIDE /'o:f,glaid/ — a short and not definite vowel, which is heard after terminal consonants (according to H. Sweet). Some authors consider that it is a neutral vowel, which is heard between sounds. For example: -ism /iz(9)m/.
ONSET /'unset/ — the first stage of a sound articulation (initial phase, excursion, first stage).
258
| OPEN /'oupsn/ — characterized by the low position of the bulk of the tonöus OPEN SYLLABLE /'aupsn 'silebl/ — the type of syllable which ends I» OPEN VOWELS /'эирэп 'vauslz/ — the group of vowels which are pronounced with the open, or low position of the bulk of the tongue. Open or low vowels in English are: /аэ, л, -d, a(i, и), ш, vj. OPPOSITION /,-Dp3'zi.fsn/ — comparison of sounds, words or morphemes- ORAL METHODS /'о:гэ! 'me0adz/ — different methods of teaching a foreign language, which are carried out for retention of oral speech habits. ORAL SOUNDS /'o=ral 'saundz/ — the sounds which are produced with the raised soft palate, thus the air goes out of the mouth cavity. ORATORICAL STYLE /дгэЧюпкэ1 'stall/ — the type of speech with ORGANS OF SPEECH /'o:ganz av 'spttj/ — the organs that together witft biological functions, such as breathing, feeding, smelling and tasting, serve to-carry out intercommunication through the elaborate work of the four mechanisms:, the power, the vibrator, the resonator and the obstructor. ORTHOEPHY /oi'Geuipi/ — the correct pronunciation of the words of a language. The interpretation of the rules of reading cannot be done without з good command of phonetics. This fact makes grammar and lexicology dependent °n Orthographic syllable /^ee'gneftk 'siiebi/ - a unit into which d diidd i iti it h d t ls |
Orthographic syllable /^ee'gneftk 'siiebi/ - a unit into which
words are divided in writing or print, e.g. rang-ing, al-ien. They do not always coincide with phonetic syllables.
ORTHOGRAPHY /»'Bugrefi/ — the system of spelling rules,
OSCILLOGRAM /s'silsgram/ — a record made by an oscillograph or by
an oscilloscope. , , ,. „.,«
OSCILLOGRAPH /o'silsgrasf/ — an instrument which makes it possible
to record speech in the form of graphs. , ,.
OVERLAP /.suve'Isep/ - the term is connected with the phases of articu
lation which partly coincide in the neighbouring sounds. The result of sucti
overlapping is partial or complete assimilation. ... * i
OVERTONE /'suvstsun/ — one of the tones above the fundamental tone in a harmonic series. They are produced when only parts of the vi огашг mechanism oscillate.
P
PALATALIZATION /,pajletdai'zeijW — softening of consonants, which
results from the secondary place of articulation — front-secondary ipcus. 11
takes place when the middle part of the tongue is raised to the hard palate ana
the air passage is narrowed or constricted, which gives the consonant sou colour
ing. All consonants, with the exception of medio-lingual, can be affected Dy
palatalization when they are followed by /I-, i, e or]/. Palatalization is phonemic
in the Russian language (compare: пыл — пыль). In the English language Palal
talization is non-phonemic, and when it takes place in the articulation ot
sounds other than /1, J1, 3, tf, cfc/ under the influence of the Russian language it
is a mistake. . , ...
PALATAL SOUND /'psektl 'saund/ — the sound that is connected with
the palate articulatorily. .,
PALATE /'pasbt/ - the roof of the mouth, separating the mouth cavity from the nasal cavity. In articulatory phonetics it is divided into the Hard pai-ate, the soft palate with the uvula and the teethridge,
259»
PALATE ARTIFICIAL /'ра;Ы .ati'fij1«!/ is made of metal or vulcanite for each experiments tor individually and corresponds exactly to the shape of bis palate. The underside of the artificial palate is sprinkled with some tine white powder and then carefully fitted into the mouth, after this a sound is articulated. During this process some-of the powder is licked off ai the points of the tongue — palate contacts. After this the artificial palate is removed and carefully examind.
PALATO-ALVEOLAR CONSONANTS /'pal stsu'al vials 'kionsanants/— the consonants articulated by the tip of the tongue raised against the teethridge (there is a narrowing between them) and the middle part of the tongue which is -simultaneously raised to the hard palate, Palato-alveolar consonants are / J, 3/-
PALATOORAMS ЛраеШэцдгаатг/ — the drawings of the tongue — palate contacts.
PARENTHESIS /pa'ren9asrs/ — a word, .phrase or sentence usually having its own complete meaning, inserted into a sentence which is grammatically complete without this insertion, and marked off from it by punctuation. For example: "I shall not go there," he replied. "I ask you," she demanded, "to go there immediately." In speech it is expressed by lowering the pitch of the voice.
PARENTHETIC /,раггэп'8еШ — constituting a parenthesis, containing a parenthesis.
PARTIAL TONES /'ра\Гэ1 'taunz/ — partial waves which result from the vibrations of the parts of the vibrating body are perceived as partial tones, or overtones, or harmonics.
PARTIAL WAVES /'parjal 'weivz/ — waves produced by the vibrations of the parts of the physical body. Most sound waves are complex: they consist of the fundamental and partial waves. The sound waves produced by the vibration of the whole body are called fundamental.
0 PASSAGE FOR THE AIR STREAM /'p»sid3 f? 81 'ее 'strbm/ — the way through which the ■flow of air goes out of the mouth or nasal cavity.
PASSIVE ORGANS OF SPEECH /'psesiv 'wganz av 'spfctf/ — the organs that are either constantly immovable, such as the hard palate and the upper teeth, or such that are fixed but can be movable, for example, the back part of the tongue in the articulation of /r/ is fixed and in /k, g/ it is active and moving to the soft palate, with which it forms a complete obstruction.
PAUSE /pas/ — a short period of time when sound stops before starting again. Pauses are non-obligatory between sense-groups and obligatory between sentences.
PEAKS OF PROMINENCE /'pfcks av 'prpmmans/ — the points oJ maximal acoustic activity of tone.
PECULIARITY /pi,kj№li'ffinti/ — a feature which characterizes some phonetic phenomenon.
PENULTIMATE /pi'iultrmit/ - the last but one syllable.
PERCEPTIBILITY /p9,sepU'bihti/ — in phonetics it is usually connected with hearing.
PERIODICITY /,ptana'disitr/ — the quality or fact of recurring at constant intervals.
PHARYNGAL(-GEAL) /fa'nnggl, ^азпп'ОзЫ/ — connected with the pharynx.
PHARYNGOSCOPE /f a'rrngasksup/—the apparatus which is used for the observation of the pharyngaf cavity,
PHARYNX /'fzennks/ —.the cavity between the mouth and the oesophagus communicating with the nasal passages and ears.
PHASES OF ARTICULATION /'feiziz av as,tikju'leijen/ - three phases in the articulation of a single sound: initial, medial (or central), and final, Theyfmay be called differently: excursion, stop stage and recursion.
PHONATE /f3{u)'neit/ — to pronounce outloud with the vocal cords vibrating and producing voice.
PHONEMATIC /,faunl:'mastik/ —< possessing functional properties.
PHONEME /'fatinlim/ — the shortest functional unit of a language. Each
260
phoneme exists in speech in the form of mutually non-distinctive speech sounds, its allophones. Each speech sound is an allophone oJ some phoneme.
PHONEMIC COMPONENT /fsu'niimik kam'paunant/ — this component of the phonetic structure manifests itselS in the system of separate phonemes and their allophones.
PHONEMIC TRANSCRIPTION /fau'nfcmik trsens'kripJan/ — this type of transcription is based on the principle "one symbol per phoneme". A phoneme is reflected in this transcription as an abstraction and generalization. The symbols of a phonemic transcription are placed within two slanting lines / /.
PHONETIC PRINCIPLE OF ORTHOGRAPHY /feu'netik 'prmsapl av 3!'9Dgrafi/ is a one-to-one correspondence: one grapheme corresponds to one phoneme, or sequence of phonemes. This principle is realized in phonemic transcription.
PHONETIC SUBSYSTEM /feu'netik sab'sistim/ — the speech sounds which occur in interjections and borrowed words, e.g. nasalized vowels pronounced in some words borrowed from French,
PHONETIC SYSTEM /fau'netik 'sistim/— a systemic combination of iive components of the language, i.e. the system oi segmental phonemes, the phonemic component, the syllabic component, the accentual component, intonation.
PHONETICS /fsu'netiks/ — the science that studies the sound matter of the language, its semantic functions and the lines of development.
PHONIC /'faunik/ — acoustic, connected with voice or sounds.
PHONOGRAPH /'faunsgrarf/ — а machine invented by Edison for recording and reproducing sounds (1877).
PHONOLOGICAL MISTAKES 7,fauna'Iud3ik{9)l mis'teiks/— mistakes connected with the alteration of the meaning of words, which prevent communication. For example, mispronunciation of /9/ may lead to the confusion of thought — fought, think — sink, mouth — mouse, etc.
PHONOLOGICAL OPPOSITION /»feuns'lodgikal ,ирэ'гфэп/ - a pair of words in which any one phoneme is usually opposed to'any other phoneme in at least one lexical or grammatical minimal or subminimal pair, e.g. /t — d/, /k — g/ in ten — den, coat — goat.
PHONOLOGY /fö'nolad3i/ — the science that deals with phonemes and their sequences. It is functional phonetics since it investigates the functional side of phonemes, accent, syllable, and intonation.
PITCH /pitf/ — the degree of highness or lowness varying with the number of vibrations of a note. V. A. Vassilyev defines it as "perception of the frequency of repeated1 pressures on the ear-drum".
PLACE OF ARTICULATION /'plets av a,tikju'teijW — the place, wiiHie a complete or incomplete obstruction is formed in the articulation oi consonants,
PLOSION /'р1эизэп/ — an abrupt separation of speech organs at the place of articulation.
PLOSIVE CONSONANTS /'plausiv 'konsanants/ - the consonants that are articulated by forming a complete obstruction which bars the flow oi air sent from the lungs through the mouth or nasal cavity. The organs of speecti that form the obstruction produce a kind of explosion on their abrupt separation. Plosive consonants are /p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, n/. See PURE PLOSIVES.
POINT OF ARTICULATION /'point av cujtrikju'leifan/— this term te used by Ameriean^linguists instead of the term "fixed or passive speech organs .
POSITIONAL ALLOPHONES /pa'zifanl 'telafaunz/ — variants of a phoneme which are used in definite positions due to the tradition of a language pronunciation, e.g. dark and light /I/.
POST-ALVEOLAR CONSONANTS /'paust ' sei v] als 'konsanantsl' - consonants that are articulated by the tip of the tongue which moves behind tne back slope of the teethridge, as, for example /t/ — /d/ in the words tree — ary.
POST-CONSONANTAL SOUND/poust#kt»nee'nenU 'saund/ - the sound which follows a consonant.
261
POST-POSITION /'paustpa'zi/an/ — the position of some phonetic element after a word; when unstressed, this element may be termed enclitic after a stressed word.
POST-TONIC STRESS /'psust'timik 'stres/ — tertiary stress is defined as post-tonic, e.g. /kan'grsetjuleit/.
PRACTICAL PHONETICS /'ргакикэ! fau'netiks/ — teaching to pronounce sounds correctly.
PRE-DORSAL CONSONANTS /'prfc'dosl 'ktmssnants/ — this term is connected with the term "dorsum". Pre-dorsal consonants are articulated by the blade and the tip of the tongue, e.g. Is, z/.
PRE-TON 1С STRESS /'prfc'txmik 'stres/ — secondary stress is defind as pre-tonic; /,83tu'meiten/.
PRE-VOCAL /'pri'vauksl/— a consonant that stands before a vowel.
PRIMARY PHONEMES /'praiman 'fauntmz/ — the term is used by those scientists who consider phonemes proper "primary" distinctive «nits and open transition /+/, stresses /' " » "/, pitches /1234/, clause terminals /-* / \/ are viewed by them as "secondary" distinctive units.
PRIMARY STRESS /'praiman 'stres/ — the stress which is the strongest compared with the other stresses used in a word.
PRINCIPAL ALLOPHONE /(typical) /'pnnsipal 'aslaufeun/ — that variant of a phoneme which is considered to be free from the influence of the-neighbouring sounds.
PROCLITIC /pra(u)'khtik/ — a monosyllabic word or particle with no> accent of its own, which is pronounced with the following pre-tonic or accented syllable as one phonetic unit. For example, articles before nouns, the particle to before verbs in the infinitive, or cases like forgive lis'aiv/, begin /bi'gin/.
PROGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION /pra'gresiv s,sim/leij9n/ — the process when the iirst of the two neighbouring sounds influences the second and makes it similar to itself. For example, the pronunciation of the suffix -ей о£ regular verbs is based on progressive voicing and devoicing: it is pronounced /t/after voiceless consonants (except /t/, /d/), after vowels and voiced consonants (except /d/), /id/ after /t/, /d/: dropped /drupt/, remained /n'memd/, ex tended /iks'tendio/.
PROMINENCE/'prummans/ — singling out acoustically, which produces, the effect of greater loudness.
PRONOUNCE /pra'nauns/ — to articulate.
PROSODIC FEATURES OF THE SENTENCE /pra'stidiJc 'fiitfsz sv Ö» 'sentans/ — they are: speech melody, the pitch (fundamental frequency), accent, tempo, rhythm and pausation, tamber; they constitute intonation in the broad sense — prosodation or prosodization.
PROTRUDE /pra'imd/ — to move forward. In phonetics this term is-connected with the protrusion of the lips.
PUFF /pAf/ — a short light gust of air blown out of the mouth cavity.
PULSATION /pAl'seiJan/ — regularly recurring beats. In speech they are connected with acoustic prominence.
PURE PLOSIVES /'pjU9 'ptsusivz/ — voiced and voiceless occlusive consonants pronounced with distinct and quick separation of the obstruction; they are: /p, b, t, d, k, o/. Lax separation of the articulating organs results-in affricated plosion which characterizes indistinct colloquial speech and dialects.
PURELY DISTRIBUTIONAL METHOD /'pjueh #distri'bjisjenl 'meGsd^ is based on the fact that it is possible to establish the phonemic status of any-sound of a given language without knowing the meaning of words, on the knowledge of the distribution of the sounds.
Q
QUALITATIVE /'kwnhietiv/ — connected with the tamber of the sound,, that is with its spectral characteristics.
QUANTITATIVE /'kwuntitetiv/ - referring to the length of the sound, i.e., its positional and phonemic length.
262
QUASI-HOMONYMS /'kwcuzi'tiDtnanimz/ — tnis is L. V. Shcherba's term whan hs speaks of ths mambers of a minima! pair, which are almost homo-.tiyras, near-homonyms.
QUESTION /'kwestjW — the communicative type of a sentence in which ■doubt, supposition or want of some information is expressed in the form of a ■question: interrogative, alternative, general, or special.
R
RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION /n'stvd pra,nAnsi'eijW — the type of pronunciation which is the most widely understood one in England and in ■English-speaking countries. It is the teaching norm in England and in most «countries where English is taught as a foreign language including the Soviet Union.
RECESSIVE STRESS /n'sesiv 'stres/ — stress that falls on the first syllable or the root of the word if it is preceded by a prefix that has lost its meaning, e.g. 'import, be'fore.
RECESSIVE TENDENCY /n'sesiv 'tendsnsi/ — the tendency which consists in gradual shifting of word accent to the first syllable (which is usually the joot of the word).
RECIPROCAL ASSIMILATION /n'sipraksl 8,sitni'leijan/ - bilateral .assimilation, when the neighbouring sounds are equally affected by assimilation. For example, in the word twice ill is labialized under the influence of /w/, and /w/ in its turn is de voiced under the influence of It/.
RECITE /ri'sait/ — to repeat outloud something memorized, especially before an audience. In studying a foreign language recitation plays a very important role.
RECORD PLAYER /'reload ,pleig/ — an instrument for playing gramophone records by means of a pick-up and one or more amplifiers.
REDUCE /n'djuis/ — to make smaller or less. For example, to reduce the intensity of a sound, to reduce the quantity of a sound.
REDUCED FORM /n'djicst 'fo:m/ — a word, which sounds weaker in the ■process of speech. Thus the verb to do can be reduced and pronounced as /du, сэ/ or even /d/. The same can be said about the verb to have /hav, av, v/. Articles, conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns are mostly affected by reduction.
REGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION /n'gresiv a,simi'leijon/ - the process -when the second of the neighbouring sounds influences the first one and makes it similar to itself. For example, in the combination In the /n/ is regressive I y assimilated by /6/ and becomes dental and is pronounced with the tip of the "tongue against the upper teeth (its free variant is pronounced with the tip of the tongue against the teethridge).
RESONANT /'reznant/ — the term is used by H. Gleason for vowels and sonorous consonants,
RETENTION /n'ten/эп/ — the ability to preserve the most stable properties in spite of assimilation or reduction.
RETENTIVE TENDENCY /n'tentiv 'tendonsi/ — this tendency is char
acterized by the retention of accent in the derivative on the same syllable on
■which it falls in the parent word, e.g. 'simitar, as'similate. ,
RETRACTED POSITION /n'treektid pa'ztW — the position of the
bulk of the tongue when it is in the front or in the back part of the mouth cavity
but a bit retracted in the horizontal direction, forward — back-advanced, or
backward — front-retracted: /u, i/. , ,
RETROFLEXED VOWELS /'retra(u)flekst 'vauaiz/ — the vowels that are articulated by the tip of the tongue curled back behind the back slope of the teethridge irrespective of the articulation of the vowel itself: this results in a special tembral colouring of the retroflexed vowel, e.g. American ftl.
RHYME /raim/ — the repetition of identical or similar terminal sounds, sound combinations or words.
RHYTHM /nöra/ — "rhythm is a flow, movement, procedure, etc., char-acterized by basically regular recurrence of elements or features, as beat, or accent, in alternation with op posite or different elements or features" (Webster s New World Dictionary). Rhythm in speech is the periodic recurrence of stressed
263
syllables. Rhythm exists both in prose and in \erse. It can be regarded as one of the forms in which a language exists.
RHYTHMIC STRESS /'nömik 'stres/ — the term refers to the cases when there are equal number of unstressed syllables between two beats. For example, 'telt them to 'go there at 'once.
RHYTHMIC TENDENCY /'riÖmik 'tendensi/ — the tendency to alternate stressed and unstressed syllables. This tendency gave rise to the origin of the secondary stress, especially in four-syllable words of foreign origin. For example, explanation /.ekspla'neijW, conversation /,I«mva'sei,fsn/.
ROLLED CONSONANTS /'rauld 'kimsansnts/ — such consonants are pronounced when the tip of the tongue (or the uvula) vibrates in the How of air and interrupts it repeatedly, so that the flow of air is momentarily obstructed by the vibrating organ (or organs). The Russian sonant /p/ is a rolled consonant,
ROMAN ALPHABET freumen 'aelfebit/— Latin alphabet.
ROMIC /'rgumik/ — the term is used in connection with the use of Latin letters, for symbols of phonetic transcription.
R ONT G E NO GRAM /rant' gen sgraem/ — a photograph made with the help of X-rays. Rontgenograms help to observe directly the ^ork of speech organs in the process of speech.
» ROOF OF THE MOUTH /'ru-f ev 6э 'mau0/^ for purposes of consonant analysis and description it is conventionally divided into: 1. the gums; 2. the teethridge; 3. the back slope of the alveolar ridge; 4. the soft palate (velum) 5. the uvula,
• RULES OF READING /'mlz ev 'rfcdirj/ — the system of rules dealing with the correspondencies between the reading matter of the language and its pro» nunciation.
SAGITTAL /'saufcitl/ — the sagittal division of the articulatory apparatus into right and left halves makes it possible to represent the position of speech-organs in the production of sounds.
SANDHI /'saaidhli/ — the term is connected with different modifications of the sound, caused by assimilation.
SCALE /skeil/ — the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables о a syntactic whole.
SCALE OF SONORITY /'skeil av ss'nvntif — the arrangement of phonemes according to their degree of loudness. According to this scale the most sonorous are front low vowels, then go sonants and voiced consonants. Voiceless-consonants are characterized byl minimal sonority, y-
SCHWA VOWEL /'Jwcu 'vauel/ — the neutral vowel Ы.
SECONDARY ACCENT /'seksndgri 'aekssnt/ — this type of accent appears in words of five or more syllables. It falls on the'second pretonic syllable, e.g. ,hospi'tality,
SEGMENT /'segment/ — in phonetics it is the shortest part of speech continuum — a sound or a phoneme.
SEGMENTAL PHONEME /seg'mentl 'fsimian/ — the shortest part of speech continuum that is capablejof differentiating words.
SEMANTIC FUNCTION /si'msentik 'fAnkJen/ — in phonetics the term is used in connection with the differentjatory function (semantic role) of phonetic means,
SEMANTIC TENDENCY /si'msentik 'tencEensi/— according to this type of tendency words with separable prefixes and compound words have two equally strong stresses, e.g. 'tin'known, 'sit 'down, ' twenty-one^ 'eye-witness.
SEMI-VOWELS /'semi'vauslz/ — the term is almost out of use nowadaysv It refers to /j, w, r/,
SEMI-WEAK VOWELS /'semi'wtk 'vauelz/ - the vowels weaker in tamber which is the result of qualitative reduction: intermediate between full and1 neutral phonation of the vowel.
SENSE-GROUP /'sensgrup/ — a word or a group of words that conveys some idea.
264
SENTENCE ACCENT /'sentsns 'sfcsant/ — a constituent part of the pho
netic structure of the spoken sentence and one of the components of intonation
In the broad sense of the term (see PROSODATION). „,•„„«
SENTENCE STRESS /'sentans 'stres/ — the greater degree of prominence given to certaitfwords in a sentence. These words are usually nouns, adjeciyes, notional verbs and>dverf», interjections, numerals, demonstrative, possessive, emphasizing pronouns, interrogative words and two-syllable prepositions Articles, partfcles to and there, auxiliary, modal, and connective verbs, personal reflexive and reciprocal pronouns, one-syllable: prepositions, conjunctionsand conjunctive words - are, as a rule, unstressed. The distribution of sentence stress is determined by the semantic factor.
SHADE /Jeid/ — a slight variation. ,
SHAPE /Jeip/ — form, the shape of the mouth cavity, the shape, formed by the lips.
SHARP /j"cup/— strong and shrill. i,,.moiiBr
SHORT VOWELS /'Jat 'vaualz/ - the vowels having a relatively smaller length, or quantity in comparison with the long vowels {other conditions remaining the same). Short English III and /u/ differ from the long HI and /u/
alS° SIBILANTS /'sibilants/- the sounds of a whistling or hissing nature.
In English sibilants are Is, z, J", 3/. , ,, , ,. bllf „1 nm
SILENT LETTERS /'sadaot 'let«/ - letters that are spelt but not pro-
| n0UtSILENT STOP/'sailant 'stop/ - the medial stage in /p, t, Id«JJ that is characterized by the "loss of plosion" in cases like: past perfect, board, eight days. SIMILARITY /'swii'lfflnti/— likeness. . SINGLE STRESS /'sing! 'stres/ - only one stress in awora. SINGLE TAP It/ /'sirjgl 'tap 'r/ - pronounced with the single beat of SLIP OF THE TONGUE /'slip sv бэ 'W — a small unintentional mis take. SLIT /sht/ — a flat narrowing. . .. n i_ • SLOPE /sleup/ - an incline. The back slope of the teethridge - an in SLOW STYLE/'slau 'stall/- corresponds to Acad. L. V. Shcherba s cSnSONANTS /'swft 'kunsanants/ — palatalized |
cSnNNTS /swft kunsanants/ palatal ^
*SOFT PALATE /'st)ft 'palit/ - the back, soft part of the hardIt'alate-.
SONOR ANTS /se'narwrts/ - the sounds in the production of which voice prevails over noise. Sonorants in English are /m» n, rj, I» J> w> r/*
SONORITY /sa'nonti/ — a degree of loudness. д d
SOUND /saund/ - a material unit, produced by speech organs. A souna
can be viewed from the articulatory, acoustic, auditory^.and functional pomw
■of view, . , .h ai
SOUND SPECTROGRAPH /'saund 'spektr9grcuf/T an apparatus tnai is used in phonetics for purposes of spectrographic analysis pf sPee^e^"tra a spectrogram it is possible to see different configuration of the *°vreu specif. Different vowels have different arrangement of formants on the sPec"°f^' .*
SOUTHERN ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION /'элоэп 'inglij ргэ,плпы feij3n/ see RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION, or RP.
SPECIAL QUESTION /'spejsl 'kwestjsn/ — the type of a 4t«sHoii begins with the interrogative words who, what, where, why, etc., »Д information required. Special questions may refer to any part of the They are pronounced with the falling tone.
SPEECH MELODY /'spMJ 'irieledi/ - variations in the pitch of the voice in connected speech.
SPIRANT /'spaierent/ see FRICATIVE. ■
SPREAD LIP POSITION /'spred 'lip рэ'яJen/ - the pos^.[on when tne corners of the lips are widened in the horizontal direction, the teeth are siignuy
265
visible, and the lips come close to the gums. This position of the lips can be observed in the articulation of Ы.
STABILITY OF ARTICULATION /sta'biliti ev o=,tikju'leijW is the-state when the shape, volume and orifice-size of the mouth resonator are stable. According to the stability of articulation English vowels are divided into: monophthongs, diphthongs and diphthongoids.
STATISTICAL METHOD /sta'tistikal 'meOsd/ — the method which-, helps to establish frequency, probability and predictability oi occurrence of phonemes and their allophones in different positions.
STAVES /steivz/ — two parallel lines for intonation recording {by means-of special symbols).
STRESS or ACCENT is a greater degree of prominence which is effected! mainly by pronouncing the stressed syllable (a) on a different pitch or with & change of pitch direction in it; (b) with greater force of exhalation and greater muscular tension. The greater force of articulation is accompanied by an increase-in the length of the sound in the stressed syllable, especially vowels. Vowels in the stressed syllables are not reduced.
STRONG FORMS /'stn>n 'famz/ — the forms that can be observed in accented words.
STRONG VOWELS IN WEAK POSITIONS /'strun 'vaualz in 'Wr.k pa-'zijenz/ — vowels the quantity of which is not reduced in unstressed positions. For example, Ы in blackboard /'blsekbwd/, /se/ in climax /'klaimaks/.
STRUCTURALISTS /'strAktfaralrsts/ — those scientists who analyse phonetic phenomena without recourse to meaning, which they consider to be external to linguistics (R. Jacobson, L. Bloomfield, L. Hjelmsley, E. Nida). Structuralists consider the sound structure as a system of relations between! phonemes. They carry out the investigation of the phonetic structure without recourse to history and' to the material aspect of phonemes, which are realizedl as distinctive units in words, phrases and sentences. All this makes their detailed analysis of phonemes abstract and schematic.
STYLES OF PRONUNCIATION ■ /'stailz av pr9/nAnsi'eiJan/ — L. V. Shcherba suggested two types of style in pronunciation: full style and colloquial style. According to D. Jones, there are the following varieties of style: rapid familiar style, slower colloquial style, slow conversational style, natural style, acquired style, formal style.
SUB-PHONEMIC VARIANTS /'sAbfs(uyntmik 'variants/ see SUBSIDIARY MEMBERS.
SUBSIDIARY MEMBERS (allophones) /ssb'sidjsn 'membsz/ — variants-of phonemes that appear under the influence of the neighbouring phonemes with which they are in complementary distribution. They are subdivided into I. combinatory and 2. positional.
SUBSTITUTION METHOD /,SAbsli'tju;.fan 'me6sd/ — the method of replacing of one speech sound by another in the same position to see whether it results in a minimal pair, e.g. pen, ten, den.
SYLLABEME /'silabtm/ — a unit which is responsible for a few minimal and sub-minimal pairs, e.g. lightening — lightning differ only due to /n/ syl-labicity in the first word.
SYLLABIC /si'laebik/ — capable of forming a syllable.
SYLLABIC SOUNDS /si'isebib 'saundz/ — sounds that can form the peaks of prominence, they are vowels and sonants other than /i, w/.
SYLLABICATE /si'laebikeit/ — to divide into, syllables.
SYLLABLE /'silabl/ — shortest segment of speech continuum. Syllables are material carriers of words. They constitute words and their forms, phrases and sentences. According to J. Kenyon the syllable is one or more speech sounds, forming a single uninterrupted unit of utterance, which may be a word, or a commonly recognized and separable subdivision of a word.
SYLLABLE DIVISION /'silgbl di'vi3an/ - division of the word into
arcs of articulatory effort" (N. I. Zhinkin's theory). A strong-end consonant
begins the arc of loudness and a weak-end consonant terminates it. Compare
day, aid; in the first word /d/ constitutes the beginning of the arc of loudness,
or the beginning of a syllable, it is progressively voiced. In the second word /d/
266
| constitutes the end of the arc of loudness, or the end of the syllable, it is progres- S'Ve SYLLABLE PATTERN /'silgbl 'psetsn/— the type of syllable most common for the language. English and Russian are characterized by CV syllabic pattern, T TABLE OF CONSONANTS, TABLE OF VOWELS /'teibl av 'ktjnsanants, 'teibl av 'vau9lz/ ~ an orderly arrangement of consonants or vowels in vertical and horizontal columns. It helps to visualize the system of vowels and consonants and to compare them with the similar systems of the mother tongue. TABULATE /'tffibjuleit/ - to arrange in tabular form TACTILE /'tektail/ - of, relating to, or perceived by the sense of touch. TAIL /teil/ — unstressed or partly stressed syllables (or syllable) that TAMBER /'tsernba/ — the quality of a musical sound, depending on what overtones are present and their respective amplitudes. TEETHRIDGE /'thönto/ see ALVEOLES |
ce.
TEMPORAL COMPONENT OF INTONATION /temperэ1 paunant av .inteti'neijW — it consists of pauses, duration, rhythm.
TENSE VOWELS /'tens 'vaualz/- these vowels are articulated wt
muscles of the lips, tongue, cheeks and the back wall of the pharynx made hard
er by tensing, Traditionally they are long vowels: /b, cu, v, w, <s:l, ail snori
vowels are considered to be lax. , , ,. 5„„_4.:nn
TERMINAL TONE /'tammel 'taun/ - a change of pitch at the junction of two sense-groups. The American descriptivists use the term: clause terminal .
TIMBRE /'timba/ see TAMBER, TAMBRE .
TONE /teun/ - sounds may be periodical and non-periodical. « ™ v
brationsof a'physical body are rhythmical, the auditory impression of periodic
waves is a musical tone, or in speech — a speech-tone. .
TONEME /'teuntan/ - the toneme of a sentence or of a мпае-grottp в а
separate phonological unit, because it performs distinctive function, e.g.
\once — "never", 'not /once — "many times . 4tunsst-
TONETIC STRESS MARKS /teu'netik 'stres ,^^W - fhe marks suggest ed by R. Kingdon. They are placed before the stressed ^'e^JS in the same positions as the ordinary stress marks used in pbonetic *nnserg tions. They indicate the intonation as well as the stress. The advantage ош system is that it indicates high and low falling and rising tonöj£ Ä nw el and emphatic tones) in the text proper which enables the pupil to do without
StaVTONETie TRANSCRIPTION /teu'netik trens'knpjenj'- tone and
stress indicators shown by placing special signs on an inlmed sea«,«^ j
between or beside the line of the text, These symbols are different, dashes ana
dots, small and big dots, wedge-like signs, etc. „н-иЫапг orfian.
«TONGUE Лад/ - the most important and movable аг.1'с"1аХ4 dlffV
TONGUE TWISTERS /'Urj 'twists/ - short rhymes 1 /» |"
cult sounds and sound combinations are included. They are used as trainmB
exercises in teaching pronunciation. .
TONOGRAM /'taun3,grssm/- graphic representation of
„TRACHEA /trg'kfca/ see WINDPIPE.
| ■or linguistically broad, transcription is based on the P™CIP\ehl?t™Kantlng phoneme". The symbols of phonemic transcription are placed between slanting infiS ii tition is b"^on^ prin- |
| An iilophonic, or linguistically narrow transcription is ciple "one symbol per allophone". The symbols of an alloph are usually placed between square brackets [ ]. In ift»etta?% transcription is more convenient. An altophonic transcripti to scientific phonetic work. 267 |
/t'kj/ th system of sig
TRANSLITERATION ^traenzlita'reijan/ — the representation of the
sounds oJ one language as nearly as possible by the letters and letter combina
tions of another language. For-ex ample, the Russian ж is represented in English
by the letter combination zh. . ,
TRIPHTHONG /'tnföürj/ — a vowel sound that consists of three elements, the first element is a diphthong and the second — a neutral vowel /a/. In slow, style they are pronounced as a two-syllable unit: /aus/ — /au/ + /э/.
TUNE ONE /'tjim 'wjui/ — a falling tone.
TUNE TWO /'tjrai 'Ы — a rising tone.
TWANG /twasrj/ — a sharp nasal quality of a vowel sound.
TYPICAL TONEMES /'tipikal 'tsunfcmz/ — they are hypothetical^ the following: terminal tönernes, pre-head tönernes, head tönernes, scale tönernes, pitch-level and pitch-range tonemes, rate-of-pitch-change tonemes.
UNACCENTED /'Anak'sentid/ — unstressed.
UNDERTONE /'jtndateun/ — a low tone of voice.
UNICENTRAL CONSONANTS /'jttni'sentrsl 'ktinsanants/ — consonants pronounced with a single articulatory obstruction (complete or incomplete); e.g. /t, d, k, g, p, b, s, z, f, v, rj, h/.
UNILATERAL /'j mil'lateral/ —.the lateral sonant 71/ pronounced with only one side of the tongue lowered (usually it is the left side of the tongue).
UNROUNDED VOWELS /'jm'raundid 'vaualz/— vowels in the articulation of which the lips are not rounded la, e, i, aV.
UTTERANCE /'Atarsns/ — v.ocal expression of some idea. ' UVULA /'jttvjuJa/ — a fleshy conical body suspended from the soft palate over the back of the tongue.
VARIANTS CONDITIONED BY DURATION /'vsanants ken'dijend bai djue'reijan/ — quantitative variants of phonemes (positional and combmatory allophones different in length).
VARIANTS CONDITIONED BY STRESS /'vesnants ksn'diyänd bai 'stres/ — variants of phonemes which depend on positional (accentual) conditions, e.g../'peer ant/ — /pe'rentl/.
VARIANTS FREE ryeansnts 'frfc/ — two different allophones of a phoneme pronounced in identical positions by one and the same or different speakers,
VARIATIONS STYLISTIC /.veari'eijenz .stai'hstih/— variations in the pronunciation of speech sounds, words and sentences oculiar to different styles of speech.
VARIETY /va'raiati/ — the term is used in connection with the vowels of low and broad variety.
VELAR /'vMa/ — the term is used in the classification о Consonants which are articulated with the help of the soft palate: velar nasal sonofant /rj/, velar stops /k, g/.
VELARIZATION /,vtlorai'zeifon/ - formation of the back-secondary focus which makes the sounds "dark" in tamber /w, r, Xl and the Russian /ж, ш/.
VELUM /'vfclem/ — the soft palate. When the soft palate is raised the air passes out of the mouth cavity, when the soft palate is lowered the flow of air is directed through the nasal cavity.
u VIBRATION OF THE VOCAL CORDS /vai'breijen av бэ 'vsukl 'ko:dz/ —
... when the glottis is narrowed so that the tensed vocal cords approach escb
other or touch lightly, these'may be set in vibratory motion by the outgoing
breath pressure and brought together again by their own elasticity and by mus
cular tension" (V. A. Vassilyev). —
. VISUAL AIDS /'vizju9l 'eidz/ — devices which serve to assist understand
ing or memory by displaying what is to be understood or memorized in a vi
sible form: charts, diagrams, tables, pictures, films.
263
VOCAL BANDS /'vault! 'baendz/ — elastic folds of membrane inside the larynx which vibrate to produce voice, see VOCAL CORDS.
VOCALISM /'vsukshzm/ — the system of vowel phonemes.
VOCOID /'vokoid/ — the term is used by the American linguist K. Pike to express the articulatory closeness of sonorants to vowels. Unlike contoid, a vocoid may form a syllable.
VOICE /vois/ — vocal tone produced by the regular vibrations of the vocal cords.
VOICED CONSONANTS /'voist 'tomsansnts/ — the consonants which are produced with the vocal cords brought together and vibrating.
VOICELESS CONSONANTS /'vdisIis 'kunsanants/ — the consonants which are produced with the vocal cords taken apart and not vibrating.
VOLUME /'vrcljum/ — force or Joudness of sounding speech.
VOWEL DIAGRAMS /'vaual 'daiagrsemz/ — schematic representations-of the system of vowels which are based on physiological principle (genetic principle) and which represent qualitative differences in the articulation of vowels.
VOWEL MUTATION /'vauel mju'tei/эп/ — umlaut, or modification of a vowel caused by assimilation to a vowel or semivowel (now generally lost)] in the following syllable, a vowel resulting from such assimilation has a mark • * placed over it.
W
WEAK VOWELS /'wfck 'vaualz/ — the vowels which are shorter and less-distinct, sometimes they are reduced to the neutral vowel /si. Weakening or reduction of vowels is a characteristic feature of Russian and English. There are-languages where vowel reduction does not take place (Japanese, Italian, Polish).
WIDENING THE RANGE /'waidmrj Öa 'remcfe/ — one of the emphatic-means which consists in deliberate, widening the pitch-levels of sense-groups. » WINDPIPE /'windpaip/ — trachea or air passage.
WORD /ws:d/ — in phonetics the term refers to the word as a phonetic unit.
WORD-STRESS or WORD ACCENT - every disyllabic and polysyllabic word pronounced in isolation has word-stress. It is a singling out of one or more of its syllables by giving them a greater degree of prominence as compared with-the other syllable or syllables in the same word,
WORD TONEME /'vraid 'tsunfcm/ — a distinctive movement or change oS pitch within the syllable. It exists in the so-called tone languages.
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