LITERATURE OF THE GERMANIC TRIBES

The Germanic tribes had a literature, but it was not written down. The stories and poems they made up were repeated and remem­bered. The Germanic tribes were fond of poetry. Their poems did not remain unchanged. Poets improved them in form and some­times they changed them to make them more interesting.

At that time there were professional poets too, who went from one place to another or had positions at the courts of kings. They sang songs in which they enlarged and magnified the deeds and events, which the songs were describing. They even sometimes added super natural qualities to a hero.

Most of those early poems were based on historic facts but historic elements were obscured by poetic and mythical addi­tions.

At first all the Germanic tribes were pagans, but then in the 7th century the Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity by missionaries who came from the continent. So in the 7th century the Anglo-Saxons became Christians and began composing reli­gious works.

Vocabulary

add [aed] v добавлять addition [s'dijbn] n дополнение adopt [g'dDpt] v принимать Christian ['knstjan] n христианин Christianity Lkristi'asnrti] n христианство compose [ksm'psuz] v сочинять, созда­вать convert [kan'v3:t] v обращать (в дру­гую веру) establish [is'taeblij] v основывать; созда­вать

magnify ['msegmfai] v восхвалять

missionary ['гш/пэп] п миссионер

monk [тлпк] п монах

mythical ['гш01кэ1] о фантастический, вымышленный

obscure [sb'skjus] v затемнять

position [pa'zifsn] n должность

quality ['kwoliti] n качество

supenatural [,sju:p3'naetfr3l] а сверхъ­естественный

 

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Beowulf

Beowulf f beiawulf] is the most important poem of the Anglo-Saxon period. Though the Angles brought Beowulf with them to England, it has nothing to do with it. The epic is not even about the Anglo-Saxons, but about the Scandinavians when they lived on the continent in the 3rd or 4th cen­tury.

The story of Beowulf was written down in the 10th century by an unknown author, and the manuscripts is now kept in the British Museum. Its social interest lies in the vivid description of the life of that period, of the manners and customs of the people at that time, of the relations among the members of the society and in the portrayal of their towns, ships and feasts.

Aglo-Saxon warriors

The scene takes place among the Jutes, who lived on the Scandinavian peninsula at the time. Their neighboms were the Danes. The Jutes and the Danes were good sailors. Their ships sailed round the coast of the peninsula and to far-off lands.

The poem describes the warriors in battle and at peace, during their feasts and amusements. The main hero, Beowulf, is a strong, courageous, unselfish, proud and honest man. He defends his peo­ple against the unfriendly forces of nature and becomes the most beloved and kindest king on the earth as the theme of the poem is the straggle of good against evil. Beowulf fights not for his glory, he fights for the benefit of his people.

Although Beowulf was a Jute and his home is Jutland we say that The Song of Beowulf is an English poem. The social conditions it depicted are English. Both the form and the spirit of the poem are English. The poem is a true piece of English literature. The poem is composed with great skill. The author used many vivid

words and descriptive phrases. It is not only the subj ect of the poem that interests us but also its style. Beowulf is one of the early master­pieces of the Anglo-Saxon or Old English language. The poem is famous for its metaphors. For instance, the poet calls the sea "the swan's road", the body — "the bone-house", a warrior — "a hero­in-battle", etc.

The Story

The epic consists of two parts. The first part
tells us how Beowulf freed the Danes from two
monsters. Hrothgar [' hroGga:], King of the
Danes, in his old age had built near the sea a hall
called Heorot. He and his men gathered there
for feasts. One night as they were all sleeping a
frightful monster called Grendel broke into the
hall, killed thirty of the sleeping warriors, and
carried off their bodies to devour them in his lair
under the sea. The horrible half-human crea­
ture came night after night. Fear and death
reigned in the great hall. For twelve winters
Grendel's horrible raids continued. At last
the rumour of Grendel and his horrible deeds
crossed over the sea and reached Beowulf
who was a man of immense strength and            Aglo-Saxon warrior

courage. When he heard the story, Beowulf decided to fight the monster and free the Danes. With fourteen companions he crossed the sea. This is how his voyage is described in the poem:

The foamy-necked floater fanned by the breeze

Likest a bird glided the waters

Till twenty and four hours hereafter

The twist-stemmed vessel had travelled such distance,

That the sailing-men saw the sloping embankments,

The sea-cliffs gleaming, precipitous mountains.

 

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The Danes receive Beowulf and his companions with great hospitality, they make a feast in Heorot at which the queen pass­es the mead cup to the warriors with her own hand. But as night approaches the fear of Grendel is again upon the Danes. They all withdraw after the king has warned Beowulf of the frightful danger of sleeping in the hall. Beowulf stays in the hall with his warriors, saying proudly that since weapons cannot harm the monster, he will wrestle with him bare-handed. Here is the description of Gren­del's approach to Heorot:

Forth from the fens, from the misty moorlands, Grendel came gliding — God's wrath be bore — Came under clouds, until he saw clearly, Glittering with gold plates, the mead hall of men. Down fell the door, though fastened with fire bands; Open it sprang at the stroke of his paw. Swollen with rage burst in the bale-bringer; Flamed in his eyes a fierce light, likest fire.

Breaking into the hall, Grendel seizes one of the sleepers and devours him. Then he approaches Beowulf and stretches out a claw, only to find it clutched in a grip of steel. A sudden terror strikes the monster's heart. He roars, struggles, tries to free his arm; but Beowulf leaps to his feet and grapples his enemy bare­handed. After a desperate struggle Beowulf manages to tear off the monster's arm; Grendel escapes shrieking across the moor, and plunges into the sea to die.

Beowulf hangs the huge arm with its terrible claws over the king's seat; the Danes rejoice in Beowulf's victory. When night falls, a great feast is spread in Heorot. Beowulf receives rich presents, everybody is happy. The Danes once more go to sleep in the great hall. At midnight comes another monster, mother of Grendel, who wants to revenge her son. She seizes the king's best friend and councillor and rushes away with him over the fens. The old king is broken-hearted, but Beowulf tries to con­sole him:

Sorrow not, wise man. It is better for each

That his friend he avenge than that he mourn much.

Each of us shall the end await

Of worldly life: let he who may gain

Honour ere¹ death.

Then Beowulf prepares for a new fight. He plunges into the horrible place, while his companions wait for him on the shore. After a terrible fight at the bottom of the sea in the cave where the monsters live, Beowulf kills the she-monster with a magic sword which he finds in the cave. The hero returns to Heorot, where the Danes are already mourning for him, thinking him dead. Trium­phantly Beowulf returns to his native land.

In the last part of the poem there is another great fight. Beowulf is now an old man; he has reigned for fifty years, beloved by all his people. He has overcome every enemy but one, a fire dragon keep­ing watch over an enormous treasure hidden among the moun­tains. Again Beowulf goes to fight for his people. But he is old and his end is near. In a fierce battle the dragon is killed, but the fire has entered Beowulf's lungs.

He sends Wiglaf, the only of his warriors who had the courage to stand by him in his last fight, to the dragon's cave for the treasures. Beowulf dies, leaving the treasures to the people.

Vocabulary

companion [кэт'рэегуэп] п товарищ compose [кэт'рэш] v сочинять console [ksn'sgul] v утешать contents ['kontgnts] n содержание councillor ['kaunsita] n советник courageous [ka'reid^as] а смелый, от­важный creature ['kritjb] n создание; живое существо deed [di:d] n поступок; подвиг

avenge [a'vencfo] v мстить

bale [beil] n несчастье; горе

band [bsnd] n полоса

bare-handed ['beg'haendid] а голыми

руками (без оружия) bear [Ьеэ] v (bore; borne) нести benefit ['benifit] n польза, благо breeze [bri:z] n (легкий) ветерок claw [klo:] n лапа с когтями; коготь clutch [kktj] v зажать

ere [еэ] — поэтич. перед

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depict [di 'pikt] v изображать, описы­вать

descriptive [dis 'knptivj о описатель­ный; наглядный

desperate ['despant] а отчаянный; ужасный

devour [di'vaua] v пожирать

dragon ['draegan] n дракон

embankment [im'bcerjkmsnt] n насыпь

enormous [I'noimas] о громадный, ог­ромный

epic ['epik] n эпическая поэма

evil [i:vl] n зло

fan [fsen] v поэт, обвевать, освежать (о ветерке)

fasten ['fa:sn] v скреплять; укреплять

fear [йэ] л страх

feast [first] n пир; празднество

fen [fen] л болото, топь

floater f'flauta] n плот, паром

foamy ['fbumi] о покрытый пеной

frightful ['fraitful] о страшный, ужас­ный

gleam [gli:m] v светиться; мерцать

glide [glaid] v двигаться крадучись

glitter ['gilts] v блестеть, сверкать

grapple ['graepl] v схватиться, бороться

grip [grip] n сжатие

harm [ha:m] v вредить, причинять вред

hospitality Lhnspi'taeliti] n гостеприим­ство

immense [i 'mens] а огромный, гро­мадный

lair [1еэ] п логовище; нора

leap [li:p] v (leapt, leaped) прыгнуть, вскочить

manuscript ['maenjusknpt] n рукопись

masterpiece ['ma:stapi:s] n шедевр

mead [mi:d] n мёд (напиток)

metaphor ['metafa] n метафора

misty ['misti] а туманный

monster ['rrmnsta] n чудовище

moorland ['mualand] местность, порос­шая вереском

mourn [mo:n] v оплакивать; скорбеть

overcome [^эшэ'клт] v (overcame; overcome) побороть, победить

paw [po:] n nana

peninsula [pi'ninsjula] n полуостров

plunge ['pUnay v нырять; бросаться

portrayal [po:'treial] n описание; изо­бражение

precipitous [pn' srpitas] n крутой; от­весный

rage [reidj;] n ярость, гнев

raid [reid] n набег

rejoice [n'djois] v радоваться

roar [ro:] v реветь, рычать

rumour ['ш:тэ] п слух, молва

scene [si:n] n место действия

shriek [fri:k] v пронзительно кричать, орать

sloping ['slaupirj] а покатый

spirit ['spirit] n дух

stroke [strauk] n удар

subject ['sAbdpkt] n тема

swollen ['swaulan] а опухший; разду­тый

sword [so:d] n меч

theme [9i:m] л тема

twist [twist] v крутить; виться twist-stemmed vessel судно с витым носом

vivid ['vivid] а яркий

warn [wo:n] v предупреждать

wrath [ro:9] n гнев, ярость

wrestle ['rest] v бороться

Questions and Tasks

1. When was poem Beowulf compiled?

2. What is the social interest of the poem?

3. What time does the poem tell us of?

4. Where is the scene of the poem set?

5. What does the poem tell us about the Jutes and the Danes?

6. What kind of man was the young knight of the Jutes Beowulf?

7. How is the poem composed?

8. What interests us besides the subject of the poem?

9. What is the poem famous for?
10. Retell the contents of Beowulf.

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Anglo-Saxon Literature

(the 7th-11th centuries)

The culture of the early Britons changed greatly under the influ­ence of Christianity. Christianity penetrated into the British Isles in the 3rd century. It was made the Roman national faith in the year 306 when Constantine the Great became emperor over the whole of the Roman Empire. The religion was called the Catholic Church (the word "Church" means "religion", "catholic" means "univer­sal"). The Greek and Latin languages became the languages of the Church all over Europe.

At the end of the 4th century, after the fall of the Roman Em­pire, Britain was conquered by Germanic tribes. They were pa­gans. They persecuted the British Christians and put many of them to death or drove them away to Wales and Ireland.

At the end of the 6th century monks came from Rome to Britain again with the purpose to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. You know that in the 7th century the Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity.

The part of England where the monks landed was Kent and the first church they built was in the town of Canterbury. Up to this day it is the English religious centre. Now that Roman civilization

poured into the country again, a second set of Latin words was introduced into the language of the Anglo-Saxons, because the religious books that the Roman monks had brought to England were all written in Latin and Greek. The monasteries where the art of reading and writing was practised became the centres of almost all the learning and education in the country. No wonder many poets and writers imitated those Latin books about the early Christians, and they also made up many stories of their own aboiit saints. Though the poets were English, they had to write in Latin. Notwithstanding this custom, a poet appeared in the 7th century by the name of Caedmon Г kaedman] who wrote in Anglo-Saxon. He was a shepherd, who start­ed singing verses and became a poet. Later monks took him to a monastery where he made up religious poetry. He wrote a poem — the Paraphrase ['pserafreiz]. It tells part of a Bible-story.

Another writer of this time was Bede [bi: d]. He described the coun­try and the people of his time in his work The History of the English Church. His work was a fusion of historical truth and fantastic stories. It was the first history of England and Bede is regarded as "the father of English history".

Another outstanding figure in En glish history and literature was Al­fred the Great (849-901), the king of Wessex. Though he was a soldier he fought no wars except those in order to defend his country. He built a fleet of ships to beat the Danes who had again come to invade Wessex. He also made up a code of law. He tried to develop the culture of his people. He founded the first English public school for young men. He translated the Church-history of Bede from Latin into a language the people could understand, and a portion of the Bible as well. To him the English owe the famous Anglo- ^The Venerable writing the life of

„          _,,     . ,   , . ,             ,      St Cuthbert, the monk who spread

ЬахОП LhrOIUCle Which may be  Christianity in the north of Britain

 

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called the first history of England, the first prose in English litera­ture. It was continued for 250 years after the death of Alfred, till the reign of Henry II in 1154.

Questions and Tasks • 1. When did Christianity penetrate the British Isles? 2. When was it made the Roman national faith? 3. What was the religion called? 4. What languages became the languages of the Church all over Europe? 5. Why did monks come from Rome to Britain at the end of the 6th century? 6. When were the Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity? 7. Where did the monks land? 8. Where was the first church built? 9. Why did the monasteries become the centres of all the learning and education?   10. What language did the English poets have to write? 11. What representatives of Anglo-Saxon literature can you name? 12. What poem did Caedmon write? 13. Say about Bede and his work. 14. Speak about the contribution of king Alfred to the development of English literature and culture.

Vocabulary

Catholic ['каевэИк] a католический Christian ['knstjsn] n христианин Christianity [.kristi'asniti] n христианство code [koud] n свод законов contribution [,kcntrf bju:Jbn] n вклад convert [kan'v3:t] v обращать (в дру­гую веру) emperor ['етрэгэ] п император empire ['empara] n империя faith [feiG] л вера fusion ['fjirjsn] п слияние imitate ['imiteit] v подражать, имити­ровать influence ['mfluans] n влияние introduce [,mtra'dju:s] v вводить monastery ['rrronsstsri] n монастырь

notwithstanding [,rrotwi9'staendm] prep

несмотря на owe [эи] v быть обязанным penetrate ['penitreit] v проникать persecute ['p3:sikju:t] v преследовать,

подвергать гонениям portion ['рэ:/эп] п часть pour [рэ:] v вливать regard [n'ga:d] v рассматривать saint [semt] n святой set [set] n ряд shepherd ['Jepad] n пастух universal [Ju:m'v3:sal] а всеобщий venerable ['vensrabl] о преподобный

(о святом)

THE DANISH CONQUEST AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE LANGUAGE OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS

When King Alfred died, fighting with the Danes soon began again. They occupied the north and east of England (Scotland and Ireland) and also sailed over the Channel and fought in France.

The land they conquered in the North of France was called Normandy and the people who lived there the Northmen. In the hundred years that were to follow they began to be called Normans.

The Danes who had occupied the North and East of Eng­land spoke a language only slightly different from the Anglo-Saxon dialects. The roots of the words were the same while the endings were different. Soon these languages merged with one another as they were spoken by all classes of society. The language of the Anglo-Saxons took many new words from Danish, particularly those regarding state affairs and ship­building. Such words as law, ship, fellow, husband, sky, ill are of Scandinavian origin. The Danes were in many ways more civilized than the English. The Danes were accustomed to chairs and benches while the English still sat on the floor. The Danes brought the game of chess to England which originally had come to them from the East.

Vocabulary

accustom [a'kAStam] v приучать             Northman ['по:8тэп] п норманн

affair [эТеэ] п дело                                   origin ['ппфп] п происхождение

civilized ['smlaizd] а цивилизованный  originally [э'гк%пэ11] adv первоначально

comment ['tomant] v комментировать   regarding [n'ga:dm] prep относительно,
conquest ['kurjkwast] л завоевание       что касается

dialect ['daislekt] л диалект                     root [ru:t] n корень

merge [тз:сй v сливаться, соединяться slightly ['slaitli] adv слегка
Normandy ['rmnandi] n Нормандия

 

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"

Questions and Tasks

1. When did fighting with the Danes begin again?

2. What part of the country did they occupy?

3. What name was given to the land in the north of France?

4. What language did the Northmen speak?

5. What do you know about the language the Danes spoke?

6. Comment on the development of the English language influenced by the Danish invasion.

The Norman Period

(the 12th-13th centuries) THE NORMAN CONQUEST

The Northmen or the Vikings who had settled in Northwestern France were called Normans. They had adopted the French civi­lization and language. They were good soldiers, administrators and lawyers.

In 1066 at the battle of Hastings [ 'heistrnz] the Norman Duke William defeated the Saxon King Harold. Again a new invasion took place. Within five years William the Conqueror was complete mas­ter of the whole of England. He divided the land of the conquered people among his lords. With the Norman conquest the feudal sys­tem was established in England. The English peasants were made to work for the Norman barons, they became their serfs and were cruelly oppressed.

William the Conqueror could not speak a word of English. He and his barons spoke Norman-French, not pure French, because the Normans were simply the same Danes with a French polish. The English language was neglected by the conquerors.

Norman-French became the official language of the state and

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remained as such up to the middle of the 14th century. It was the language of the ruling class, of the court and the law, it was spo­ken by the Norman nobility.

But the common people of the native population kept speaking their mother tongue, Anglo-Saxon. While at the monasteries, at the centres of learning, the clergy used Latin for services and the literary activities.

In the Norman times three languages were spoken in the country. Until the 12th century it was mostly monks who were in­terested in books and learning. With the development of sciences, such as medicine and law, "Universities" appeared in Europe. Paris became the centre of higher education for English stu­dents.

In 1168 a group of professors from Paris founded the first uni­versity at Oxford. In 1209 the second university was formed at Cambridge. The students were taught Latin, theology, medicine, grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music.

By and by the elements of French and Latin penetrated into Anglo-Saxon. They belonged to all spheres of life-words denot­ing relations, religious terms, words connected with government and military terms. War, pbace, guard, council, tower, wage, comfort, beef, tailor — all these words are of French origin. Sometimes the French words replaced the corresponding Eng­lish words, sometimes they remained side by side forming syno­nyms. A well-known example of such differentiation is present­ed by the names of animals, which were of Anglo-Saxon origin, and the name of the meat of these animals, which was French, such as ox-beef, calf-veal, sheep-mutton etc. Enriched by French and Latin borrowings, their language still remained basically Anglo-Saxon.

Finally it became the national language (we now call it Middle English). The formation of the national language was completed in the 14th century.

In 1349 English began to be studied in schools. In 1366 it was adopted in the courts of Law.

Vocabulary

nobility [nau'bihti] л знать oppress [a'pres] v угнетать peasant ['pezsnt] л крестьянин polish [poilj] л тонкость, изысканность pure [pjua] а правильный replace [n'pleis] v заменять rhetoric ['retsnk] n риторика serf [s3:f] л крепостной sphere fsfis] л сфера, круг state1 [steit] л состояние state2 [steit] n государство term [t3:m] л термин theology [9i'rjl3cfei] n богословие tonque [Un] л язык wage [weictj] n заработная плата

adopt [s'dnpt] v принимать basically ['beisiksli] adv в основном borrowing ['bDrsuin] л заимствование briefly [bri:fli] adv кратко clergy ['kl3:d^i] n духовенство complete [ksm'plil] о полный; v за­канчивать corresponding [^kDns'prmdin] о соот­ветствующий council ['kaunsil] л совет court [ko:t] л суд differentiation [^difsrenfi'eijsn] n раз

личение establish [is'taeblif] v основать neglect [m'glekt] v пренебрегать

Questions and Tasks

1. What was the name of the Northmen?

2. When did the battle of Hastings take place?

3. Who conquered England?

4. How many years was William the Conqueror complete master of the whole
of England?

5. Describe the conditions of peasants after the Norman conquest.

6. What language became the official language of the state?

7. Who spoke Anglo-Saxon?

8. What language did the clergy use?

9. How many languages were spoken in the Norman times?

 

10. Who was interested in books and learning until the 12th century?

11. What city became the centre of higher education for English students?

12. Where were the first and the second universities formed?

13. What subjects were the students taught there?

14. Comment on the state of the English language after the Norman Conquest.

15. When was the formation of the national language completed?

16. When did English begin to be studied in schools?

17. When was it adopted in the courts of Law?

18. Relate briefly the story of the Normans and the Norman Conquest.

 

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LITERATURE IN THE NORMAN TIMES

The Normans brought to England romances — love stories and lyrical poems about their brave knights and their ladies.

The first English romances were translations from French. But later on in the 12th century, there appeared romances of Arthur, a legendary king of Britain. In the 15th century Thomas Malory col­lected and published them under the title Sir Thomas Malory's Book of King Arthur and of his Noble Knights of the Round Table. The knights gathered in King Arthur's city of Camelot f kaemiltrt]. Their meetings were held at a round table, hence the title of the book. All the knights were brave and gallant in their struggle against rob­bers, bad kings and monsters. King Arthur was the wisest and most honest of them all.

The townsfolk expressed their thoughts in fabliaus [ 'fasbliauz] (funny stories about townsfolk) and fables. Fables were short sto­ries with animals for characters and contained a moral.

Anglo-Saxon was spoken by the common people from the 5th till the 14th century. The songs and ballads about harvest, mow­ing, spinning and weaving were created by the country-folk, and were learnt by heart, recited and sung accompanied by musical instruments and dancing."

 

4. Who collected and published the romances?

5. Under what title did Thomas Malory collect the books?

6. What was the book about?

7. Where did the townsfolk express their thoughts?

8. What was created by the country-folk?

9. Say how the Norman Conquest affected English literature.

 

Vocabulary

accompany [э'клтрэга] ^сопровождать  legendary ['leapndgn] а легендарный

contain [кэп Чет] v содержать                mowing ['тэшп] п косьба

fable f'feibl] n басня                                   recite [rfsait] v декламировать

fabliau [fae'blisu] n фабльо                      romance [re'maens] n роман

gallant ['gsebnt] а храбрый                     spinning ['spmm] n прядение

hence [hens] adv отсюда                         weaving ['wi:virj] n тканье

knight [nait] л рыцарь                             wise [waiz] а мудрый

Questions and Tasks

1. What stories did the Normans bring to England?

2. What were the first English romances?

3. What romances appeared in the 12th century?

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*

English Literature in the 14th Century

PRE-RENAISSANCE IN ENGLAND

The Norman kings made London their residence. The London dialect was the central dialect, and it was understood throughout the country. It was the London dialect from which the national language developed.

In the 14th century the English bourgeoisie traded with Flan­ders (now Belgium). The English sold wool to Flanders and the latter produced the finest cloth. England wanted to become the centre of the world market. Flemish weavers were invited to Eng­land to teach the English their trade. But feudalism was a serious obstacle to the development of the country. In the first half of the 14th century France threatened the free towns of Flanders, wish­ing to seize them. England was afraid of losing its wool market.

A collision between France and England was inevitable. King Edward III made war with France in 1337. This war is now called the Hundred Years' War because it lasted over a hundred years. At first England was successful in the war. The English fleet defeated the French fleet in the Channel. Then the English also won battles on

land. B\it the ruin of France and the famine brought about a terrible disease called the "pestilence". It was brought over to England from France. The English soldiers called it the "Black Death". By the year 1348 one-third of England's population had perished. The peasants who had survived were forced to till the land of their lords.

As years went on, the French united against their enemy. As the king needed money for the war, Parliament voted for extra taxes. The increasing feudal oppression, cruel laws and the growth of taxes aroused people's indignation and revolts broke out all over the country. In 1381 there was a great uprising with Wat Tyler at the head. The rebels set fire to the houses, burnt valuable things, killed the king's judges and officials. They demanded the aboli­tion of serfdom and taxes, higher wages and guarantees against feudal oppression. But the rebellion was suppressed, and Wat Tyler was murdered.

Nothing made the people so angry as the rich foreign bishops of the Catholic Church who did not think about the sufferings of the people. The protest against the Catholic Church and the growth of national feeling during the first years of the Great War found an echo in literature. There appeared poor priests who wandered from one village to another and talked to the people. They protested against the rich bishops and also against all churchmen who were ignorant men and did not want to teach the people anything.

Such poor priests were the poet William Langland and John⁴ Wycliffe. They urged to fight for their rights. But the greatest writer of the 14th century was Geoffrey Chaucer, who was the writer of the new class, the bourgeoisie. He was the first to clear the way for realism.

Vocabulary

ignorant ['ignsrent] а невежественный indignation [^mdig'neifan] n возмуще­ние, негодование inevitable [m'evitabl] а неизбежный latter ['tets] а последний obstacle ['obstakl] л препятствие official [s'ftjbl] n чиновник; служащий oppression [э'рге/эп] л угнетение; гнет outcome ['autksm] л последствие

abolition Laebs'lifgn] л отмена bishop ['bijbp] л епископ collision [кэ'11зэп] л столкновение echo ['екэи] л отражение famine ['fsemm] л голод Flanders ['flaindaz] л Фландрия Flemish ['flemij] а фламандский force [fo:s] v заставлять guarantee Lgasran'ti:] v гарантировать

 

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perish ['penfl v погибать pestilence ['pestibns] n чума rebellion [n'beljsn] n восстание revolt [ri'vault] n восстание serfdom ['s3:fdsm] n крепостное право suppress [sa'pres] v подавлять survive [sg'vaiv] v выжить, уцелеть

tax [tasks] n налог threaten ['Gretn] v угрожать throughout [9ru:'aut] adv повсюду till [til] v обрабатывать (землю), пахать urge [з:с&] v побуждать, заставлять wander ['wands] v бродить weaver ['wirval n ткач

Questions and Tasks

1. Describe the political situation of England in the 14th century.

2. How did people react to growing feudal oppression?

3. Talk about Wat Tyler's Rebellion and its outcome.

4. What was the result of the protest against the Catholic Church?

5. What did poor priests protest against?

6. What do you know about the poets William Langland and John Wycliffe?

7. Who was the greatest writer of the 14th century?

Geoffrey Chaucer

(1340-1400)

Geoffrey Chaucer

The most vivid description of the 14th century England was given by Geoffrey Chaucer [ 'd3efn 'tfo:ss]. He was the first truly great writer in Eng­lish literature and is called the "father of English poetry". Chaucer was born in London, into the family of a wine merchant. His father had connections with the court and hoped for a courti­er's career for his son. At seventeen Ge­offrey became page to a lady at the court of Edward III. At twenty, Chau­cer was in France, serving as a squire. During 1373 and the next few years Chaucer travelled much and lived a busy life. He went to France, made three journeys to Italy. Italian literature opened to Chaucer a new world of art. Chaucer's earli­est poems were written in imitation of the French romances.

The second period of Chaucer's literary work was that of the Ital­ian influence. To this period belong the following poems: The House of Fame, The Parliament of Fowls, a poem satirizing Parliament, The Legend of Good Women and others.

When Chaucer came back to England, he received the post of Controller of the Customs in the port of London. Chaucer held this position for ten years. He devoted his free time to hard study and writing. Later Chaucer was appointed "Knight for the Shire of Kent", which meant that he sat in Parliament as a representa­tive for Kent.

He often had to go on business to Kent and there he observed the pilgrimages to Canterbury.

The third period of Chaucer's creative work begins in the year 1384, when he started writing his masterpiece, The Can­terbury Tales.

Chaucer died in 1400 and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Chaucer was the last English writer of the Middle Ages and the first of the Renaissance.

Vocabulary

post [psust] n поет, должность satirize ['saetaraiz] v высмеивать shire [fara] n графство source [so:s] n источник vivid ['vivid] о яркий

court [ko:t] n двор короля courtier ['кэ:ф] п придворный esquire [is'kwaia] n оруженосец pilgrimage ['pilgnmKfe] n паломни чество

Questions and Tasks

1. Give the main facts of Chaucer's life.

2. What were the sources of Chaucer's creative work?

3. Speak about the three periods of Chaucer's creative work.

4. What is his masterpiece?

5. When did Chaucer die?

6. Where was he buried?

 

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The Canterbury Tales

This is the greatest work of Chaucer in which his realism, iro­ny and freedom of views reached such a high level that it had no equal in all the English literature up to the 16th century. That's why Chaucer was called "the founder of realism". It is for the Canterbury Tales that Chaucer's name is best remembered. The book is an unfinished collection of stories in verse told by the pilgrims on their journey to Canterbury. Each pilgrim was to tell four stories. Chaucer managed to write only twenty-four instead of the proposed one hundred and twenty-four stories.

All his characters are typical representatives of their classes. When assembled, they form one people, the English people. Chaucer kept the whole poem alive and full of humour not only by the tales themselves but also by the talk, comments and the opinions of the pilgrims.

The prologue is the most interesting part of the work. It acquaints the reader with medieval society. The pilgrims are persons of dif­ferent social ranks and occupations. Chaucer has portrayed them with great skill at once as types and as individuals true to their own age. There is a knight, a yeoman (a man who owned land; a farmer), a nun, a monk, a priest, a"merchant, a clerk, a sailor, Chaucer himself and others, thirty-one pilgrims in all. The knight is brave, simple and modest. He is Chaucer's ideal of a soldier. The nun weeps seeing a mouse caught in a trap but turns her head from a beggar in his "ugly rags". The fat monk prefers hunting and good dinners to prayers. The merchant's wife is merry and strong. She has red cheeks and red stockings on her fat legs. The clerk is a poor philosopher who spends all his money on books.

Each of the travellers tells a different kind of story showing his own views and character. Some are comical, gay, witty or roman­tic, others are serious and even tragic.

In Chaucer's age the English language was still divided by dia­lects. Chaucer wrote in the London dialect, the most popular one at that time. With his poetry the London dialect became the Eng­lish literary language. Chaucer does not teach his readers what is good or bad by moralizing; he was not a preacher. He merely paid

 

joi

*mi

 

Pilgrims on their journey to Canterbury

attention to the people around him; he drew his characters "ac­cording to profession and degree", so they instantly became typi­cal of their class.

Vocabulary

merely ['miali] adv только, просто moralize ['rrrorelaiz] v поучать nun [плп] п монахиня pilgrim ['pilgrim] n паломник prayer ['preis] n молитва preacher ['pritfa] л проповедник prologue fprsulog] n пролог rank [rserjk] n звание; ранг trap [trsep] n капкан weep [wi:p] v (wept) плакать yeoman Пэитэп] п иомен, фермер

appoint [a'pomt] v назначать assemble [o'sembl] v собираться career [кэ'пэ] п карьера comment [ 'knmsnt] n комментарий,

толкование degree [di'gri:] n положение, ранг equal ['i:kwal] а равный framework ['freimw3:k] n структура instantly ['mstanth] adv немедленно level ['levl] n уровень medieval [^medi'i^sl] а средневековый

 

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Questions and Tasks

1. Thanks to what work is Chaucer's name best remembered?

2. Describe the framework of the Canterbury Tales.

3. Speak on the characters'of the Canterbury Tales as typical representatives of their time.

4. Speak on the subject and form of the tales.

5. Comment on the state of the English language at the beginning of the 14th century and Chaucer's contribution to the development of the English language.

6. Speak on Chaucer's place in English literature.

English Literature in the 15th Century

i              THE WARS OF THE ROSES

The death of Chaucer was a great blow to English poetry. It took two centuries to produce a poet equal to him. The Hundred Years' War ended, but another misfortune befell the country: a feudal war broke out between the descendants of Edward III in the 15th century.

When the English were completely driven out of France by 1453, the Yorkists took up arms against the Lancastrians, and in 1455 the Wars of the Roses began.

It was a feudal war between the big barons of the House of Lancas­ter, wishing to continue the war with France and to seize the lands of other people thus increasing their land possessions and the lesser barons and merchants of the House of York, who wished to give up fighting in France as it was too expensive for them (The Yorkists had a white rose in their coat of arms, hence the name of the war).

When the Wars of the Roses ended in 1485 Henry VII was pro­claimed King of England. The reign of the Tudors was the begin­ning of an absolute monarchy in England, and at the same time it helped to do away with feudal fighting once and for all.

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Vocabulary

befall [bf foil] vjbefell; befallen) случаться lesser ['lesa] а мелкий

coat of arms ['ksutav'aimz] n герб            proclaim [pra'kleim] vобъявлять; про-
descendant [di'sendsnt] n потомок       возглашать

Lancastrian [laen'kEestnan] n сторон-   Yorkist ['p:kist] n сторонник Йоркской
ник Ланкастерской династии          династии

Questions and Tasks

1. What misfortune befell England in the 15th century?

2. When did the Wars of the Roses begin?

3. Talk about the reasons for the war.

4. When did the war end?

5. Who was proclaimed King of England?

6. What was the reign of the Tudors for England?

Folk-Songs and Ballads

Though there was hardly any written literature in England in the 15th century, folk poetry flourished in England and Scot­land. Folk-songs were heard everywhere. Songs were made up for every occasion. There were harvest songs, mowing songs, spin­ning and weaving songs, etc.

The best of folk poetry were the ballads. A ballad is a short narrative in verse with the refrain following each stanza. The re­frain was always one and the same. Ballads were often accompa­nied by musical instruments and dancing. They became the most popular form of amusement. Some ballads could be performed by several people because they consisted of dialogues.

There were various kinds of ballads: historical, legendary, fan­tastical, lyrical and humorous. The ballads passed from genera­tion to generation through the centuries — that's why there are several versions of the same ballads. So about 305 ballads have more than a thousand versions.

The most popular ballads were those about Robin Hood.

The art of printing did not stop the development of folk-songs and ballads. They continued to appear till the 18th century when

40

they were collected and printed. The common people of Eng­land expressed their feelings in popular ballads.

Vocabulary

flourish ['АлпГ] v процветать                  refrain [n'frem] n припев

generation [^djem'reijbn] n поколение  stanza ['staenza] n строфа

narrative ['naeretrv] n повествование    version ['v3:Jsn] п вариант
occasion [э'кегзэп] п случай

Questions and Tasks

1. What poetry flourished in England in the 15th century?

2. What kind of songs were there?

3. What was the best of folk poetry?

4. What is a ballad?

5. Why could some ballads be performed by several people?

6. What kinds of ballads were there?

7. Explain why there are several versions of the same ballads.

8. What were the most popular ballads?

The Robin Hood Ballads

England's favourite hero, Robin Hood, is a partly legendary, partly historical character. The old ballads about the famous out­law say that he lived in about the second half of the 12th century, in the times of King Henry II and his son Richard the Lion-Heart. Society in those days was mainly divided into lords and peasants. Since the battle of Hastings (1066) the Saxons had been op­pressed by the Normans. In those days many of the big castles belonged to robber-barons who ill-treated the people, stole chil­dren, took away the cattle. If the country-folk resisted, they were either killed by the barons or driven away, and their homes were destroyed. They had no choice but to go out in bands and hide in the woods; then they were declared "outlaws" (outside the pro­tection of the law).

The forest abounded in game of all kinds. The Saxons were good hunters and skilled archers. But in the reign of Henry II the

41

numerous herds of deer were proclaimed "the king's deer" and the forests "the king's forests". Hunting was prohibited. A poor man was cruelly punished for killing one of those royal animals. This was the England of Robin Hood about whom there are some fifty or more ballads.

Robin Hood

Robin Hood is a brave outlaw. In Sherwood Forest near Not­tingham there was a large band of outlaws led by Robin Hood. He came from a family of Saxon land owners, whose land had been seized by a Norman baron. Robin Hood took with him all his family and went to the forest. The ballads of Robin Hood tell us of his

adventures in the forest as an outlaw. Many Saxons joined him there. They were called "the merry men of Robin Hood".

Robin Hood was strong, brave and clever. He was much cle­verer, wittier and nobler than any nobleman. He was the first in all competitions. Robin Hood was portrayed as a tireless enemy of the Norman oppressors, a favourite of the country folk, a real cham­pion of the poor. He was generous and tender-hearted and he was always ready to respond to anybody's call for help. His worst ene­mies were the Sheriff of Nottingham, the bishop and greedy monks. He always escaped any trouble and took revenge on his enemies. Robin Hood was a man of a merry joke and kind heart.

The ballads tell us of Robin Hood's friends — of Little John who was ironically called "little" for being very tall; of thejolly fat Friar Tuck who skilfully used his stick in the battle. Their hatred for the cruel oppressors united them and they led a merry and free life in Sherwood Forest.

The ballads of Robin Hood gained great popularity in the sec­ond half of the 14th century when the peasants struggled against their masters and oppressors. The ballads played an important role in the development of English poetry up to the 20th century. They became so popular that the names of their authors were forgotten.

Vocabulary

mainly ['memli] adv главным образом outlaw ['autlo:] n изгнанник proclaim [pre'kleim] v объявлять; про­возглашать prohibit [prs'hibit] v запрещать resist [n'zist] v сопротивляться respond [ns'ptmd] v отозваться revenge [rf vend^] n месть take revenge отомстить tender-hearted ['tendg'haitid] а доб­рый; отзывчивый

abound [a'baund] v изобиловать archer ['aitja] n стрелок из лука avoid [s'void] v избегать band [baend] n отряд, группа crude [kra:d] а грубый gain [gem] v добиться game [geim] n дичь generous ['gemras] а великодушный herd [h.3:d] n стадо ill-treat ['il'tiit] v дурно, жестоко об­ращаться jolly ['<%d!i] а веселый

 

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Questions and Tasks

1. What did the old ballads say about the time Robin Hood lived?

2. Describe the conditions of the Saxons after the Norman Conquest.

3. What family did Robin Hood come from?

4. What kind of man was he?

5. Who were his worst enemies?

6. Who were his friends?

7. How was Robin Hood portrayed in the ballads?

8. When did the ballads of Robin Hood gain great popularity?

!      English Literature

I    in the 16th Century

Henry VII was proclaimed King of England after the Wars of the Roses ended. Most of the great earls had killed one another in these wars and Henry VII was able to seize their lands without difficulty and give them to those who had helped him to fight for the Crown.

Thousands of small landowners appeared in England. They called themselves "squires". The squires let part of their estates to farmers who paid rent for the use of this land. The farmers, in their turn, hired labourers to till the soil and tend the sheep. The peasants in the villages had land and pastures in common.

By the reign of Henry VIII (son of Henry VII) trade had expand­ed. Trading companies sprang up and ships were built fitted to cross the ocean.

The English bourgeoisie strove for independence from other countries. The independence of a country is associated with the struggle for freedom. The Catholic Church was the chief obsta­cle and England rebelled against the Pope of Rome. Henry VIII made himself head of the English Church and took away monas­tic wealth (the lands and money that belonged to the monaster­ies), giving it to those of the bourgeoisie who sat in Parliament.

45

Questions and Tasks 1. Who was proclaimed King of England after the Wars of the Roses? 2. Describe the situation in England after the war. 3. What did the English bourgeoisie strive for? 4. What was the chief obstacle? 5. Did the Church in England become part of the state? 6. What was it called? 7. What country was England's rival? 8. When did England inflict a defeat on the Spanish Invincible Armada? 9. Speak about the situation in England after the war with Spain.

THE RENAISSANCE

The word "renaissance" [гэ 'neisans] means "rebirth" in French and was used to denote a phase in the cultural development of Europe between the 14th and 17th centuries. The Middle Ages were followed by a more progressive period due to numerous events. The bourgeoisie appeared as a new class. Italy was the first bourgeois country in Europe in the 14th century.

The Pope resisted England's strug­gle for independence, but the Church in England became part of the state. It was called the Angli­can Church.

Elizabeth I

All the progressive elements now gathered around Queen Elizabeth (1558-1603). Even Parliament helped to establish an absolute monarchy in order to concentrate all its forces in defence of the coun­try's economic interests against Spain, as Spain and England were rivals. Soon war between Spain and England broke out. Though the Spanish fleet was called the "Invin­cible Armada" ("invincible" means "unconquerable"), their ships were not built for sea battles, while the English vessels were capable of fighting under sail. The Armada was thoroughly beaten and dreadful storm overtook tke fleet and destroyed almost all ships.

But in England all was joy and happiness. This was in 1588. Victory over the most dangerous political rival consolidated Great Britain's might on the seas and in world trade. Numerous English ships under admirals Drake, Hawkings and others sailed the seas, visited America and other countries, bringing from them great fortunes that enriched and strengthened the Crown.

At the same time 16th century witnessed great contradic­tions between the wealth of the ruling class and the poverty of the people.

New social and economic conditions brought about great changes in the development of science and art. Together with the development of bourgeois relationship and formation of the Eng­lish national state this period is marked by a flourishing of national culture known in history as the Renaissance.

Vocabulary

associate [s'sgufieit] v ассоциировать

chief [tjl:f] о главный

common ['кглпэп] п общинная земля

consolidate [ksn'sulideit] v укреплять

contradiction [^knntra'dikfsn] n проти­воречие .

crown [kraun] n монарх

earl [з:1] п граф

estate [is'teit] n поместье

expand [iks'psend] v развиваться, рас­ширяться

fit [fit] v соответствовать

hire [haia] v нанимать

independence [,mdi'pendsns] n неза­висимость

inflict [m'flikt] у наносить

invincible [m'vmsabl] а непобедимый

might [mait] n мощь

monastic [mg'nasstik] а монастырский

obstacle ['nbstskl] n препятствие

pope [рэир] п папа римский

rebel [n'bel] v восставать

renaissance [ra'neissns] n эпоха Воз­рождения

rent [rent] л арендная плата

rival ['rarvsl] n соперник

spring [spnrj] v (sprang; sprung) возникать

strive [strarv] v (strove; striven) бороться

strove [straw] v past от strive

tend [tend] v пасти

thoroughly ['влгек] adv совершенно

witness [ 'witngs] v быть свидетелем; видеть

 

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Columbus [ka'lAmbas] discovered America. Vasco da Gama [ 'vseskau da 'grxma] reached the coast of India making his sea voyage. Magellan [mag'ebn] went round the earth. The world appeared in a new light.

The Copemican [кэи'рз:шкэп] system of astronomy shattered the power of the Catholic Church, and the Protestant Church was set up. Printing was invented in Germany in the 15th centu­ry. Schools and universities were established in many Europe­an countries. Great men appeared in art, science and litera­ture.

In art and literature the time between the 14th and 17th cen­turies was called the Renaissance. It was the rebirth of ancient Greek and Roman art and literature. Ancient culture attracted new writers and artists because it was full of joy of life and glori­fied the beauty of man.

The writers and learned men of the Renaissance turned against feudalism and roused in men a wish to know more about the true nature of things in the world. They were called humanists. Man was placed in the centre of life. He was no longer an evil being. He had a right to live, enjoy himself and be happy on earth.

The humanists were greatly interested in the sciences, es­pecially in natural scierrce, based on experiment and investi­gation.

These new ideas first appeared in Italy, then in France and Germany, and shortly afterwards in England and Spain.

The Italian painters and sculptors Raphael [ 'rasfeial], Leonardo da Vinci [Ira'ncudauda'vmtjl:] and Michelangelo ['maikal 'aendjdau] glorified the beauty of man. The Italian poets Dante [ 'daenti], Petrarch [рэ 'tra;k| and the Italian writer Boccaccio [bt> 'kaljiau], the French writer Rabelias [ 'raebalei], the Spanish writer Cervan­tes [s3:'vaentiz], and the English writer Thomas More and the poet Shakespeare helped people to fight for freedom and better fu­ture.

The renaissance was the greatest progressive revolution that mankind had so far experienced. It was a time which called for giants and produced giants — giants in power, thought, passion, character, in universality and learning. There was hardly any

man of importance who had not travelled extensively, who did not speak four or five languages.

Indeed, Leonardo da Vinci was a painter, sculptor, architect, mathematician and engineer. Michelangelo was a sculptor, painter and poet. Machiavelli [ 'тжкю' veil] was a statesman, poet and histo­rian.

The wave of progress reached England in the 16th century. Many learned men from other countries, for, instance the Ger­man painter Holbein, and some Italian and French musicians, went to England. In literature England had her own men. One of them was the humanist Thomas More, the first English humanist of the Renaissance.

Vocabulary

learned ['b:nid] о ученый phase [feiz] n период rouse [rauz] v возбуждать shatter ['Jaets] v подрывать statesman ['steitsman] n государствен­ный деятель universality [Ju:niV3:'sashti] n универ­сальность

denote [di'nsut] v обозначать experience [iks 'pionans] v испыты­вать, переживать extensively [iks'tensrvh] adv повсюду giant [tfjaignt] n гигант glorify ['gto:nfai] v прославлять investigation [mvesti'geijbn] n рассле­дование

Questions and Tasks

1. What does the word "renaissance" mean?

2. Talk about the great events that gave rise to the movement.

3. What were the different views regarding man in the Middle Ages and during the epoch of the Renaissance?

4. Who were the humanists?

5. In what country did the Renaissance start first?

6. What do you know about the Renaissance in Italy?

7. When did the wave of progress reach England?

 

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Thomas More

(1478-1535)

Sir Thomas More [ 'tomas mo:] was born in London and educated at Oxford. He was the first English humanist of the Renaissance. He could write Latin very well. He be­gan life as a lawyer. He was an ac­tive-minded man and kept a keen eye¹ on the events of his time. Soon he became the first great writer on social and political subjects in Eng­lish. The English writings of Thomas More include: discussions on politi­cal subjects, biographies, poetry.

Thomas More was a Catholic, but fought against the Pope and the king's absolute power. The priests hated him because of his poetry and discussions on political subjects. Thomas More refused to obey the king as the head of the English Church, therefore he was thrown into the Tower of London and beheaded there as a traitor.

The work by which Themas More is best remembered today is Utopia [ju: Чэирю] which was written in Latin in the year 1516. It has been translated into all European languages.

Utopia (which in Greek means "nowhere") is the name of a non-existent island. This work is divided into two books.

In the first, the author gives a profound and truthful picture of the people's sufferings and points out the social evils existing in Eng­land at that time. In the second book Thomas More presents his ideal of what future society should be like. It is an ideal republic. Its government is elected. Everybody works. All schooling is free. Man must be healthy and wise, but not rich. Utopia describes a perfect social system built on communist principles. The word "utopia" has become a byword and is used in modern English to denote an unat­tainable ideal, usually in social and political matters.

¹ kept a keen eye — пристально следил 50

Vocabulary

active-minded f'aektiv'mamdid] оэнер-  obey [a'bei] v подчиняться

гичный, деятельный                         profound ['ra'faund] а глубокий

behead [bi'hed] v обезглавливать; каз- traitor f'treita] n предатель

нить                                                     unattainable ['лпэЧетпэЫ] о недости-

byword ['baiW3:d] n крылатое слово           жимый

composition [_котрэ'гг/эп] п построение

Questions and Tasks

1. Who was the first English humanist of the Renaissance?

2. When did Thomas More live?

3. What kind of man was he?

4. What did the English writings of Thomas More include?

5. Comment on the composition of his best work Utopia.

6. What was More's idea of what future society should be like?

7. What did Thomas Moore fight against?

8. Why was Moore thrown into the Tower of London and beheaded?

THE DEVELOPMENT OF DRAMA IN ENGLAND

During the Renaissance art and literature developed. People liked to sing and act. Drama became a very popular genre of literature. The Renaissance dramas differed greatly from the first plays written in the Middle Ages. As in Greece drama in England was in its beginning a religious thing. The clergymen began playing some parts of Christ's life in the church. The oldest plays in England were the "Mysteries" and "Miracles" which were performed on religious holidays. These were stories about saints and had many choral elements in them.

Gradually ceremonies developed into performances. They passed from the stage in the church to the stage in the street. At the end of the 14th century the "Mysteries" gave way to the "Morality" plays. The plays were meant to teach people a moral lesson. The characters in them were abstract vices and virtues.

Between the acts of the "Morality" and "Miracle plays" there were introduced short plays called "interludes" ['intaluxlz] — light

51

Actors showing a performance outside a country inn

compositions intended to make people laugh. They were performed in the houses of the more intelligent people.

Longer plays in which shepherds and shepherdesses took part were called "Masques" [ 'ma:sks]. These dramatic performances with music were very pleasing and were played till the end of the

17th century.

Soonthe plays became complicated. Professional actors travelled from town to town performing in inn yards. The first playhouse in London was built in 1576. It was called "The Theatre". A more fa­mous theatre was the "Globe", built in 1599. It was like the old inn yard open to the sky. Galleries and boxes were placed round the yard. The stage was in the middle of it. There was no scenery. The place of action was written on a placard, e. g., a palace, Lon­don, etc. There was no curtain, either. The actors stood in the middle of the audience on the stage. Women's parts were acted by boys or men.

Drama from its very beginning was divided into comedy and tragedy. The first English tragedies and comedies were per­formed in London in about 1550.

In the 16th century a number of plays were written in imita­tion of Ancient Roman tragedies and comedies. There was little action on the stage. The chorus summed up the situation and also gave moral observations at the end of each act. Such plays were called classical dramas. The greatest playwrights of the time were men of academic learning, the so-called "University Wits".

Among the "University Wits" were John Lyly¹, Thomas Kyd², Christopher Marlowe and others. Each of them contributed something to the development of the drama into the forms in which Shakespeare was to take it up.

Vocabulary

masque [ma:sk] л маска miracle fmirakl] л чудо mystery ['mistsn] л тайна observation [^пЬгэ'ует/эп] л наблюде­ние placard ['plsekard] n афиша; плакат scenery ['si:ngn] л декорации shepherdess ['Jepsdis] л пастушка sum (up) [saiti] v подводить итог, сум­мировать vice [vais] л зло virtue ['v3:tju:] л добродетель

box ['bnks] n ложа ceremony ['senmsni] л церемония; тор­жество choral ['кэ:гэ1] а хоровой chorus ['ko:rgs] n хор complicated ['ktmrplikeitid] о сложный gallery ['дэе1эп] л балкон, галерея genre [за:пг] л жанр gradually ['grsedjrali] л постепенно intend [m'tend] л предназначать interlude ['mtaluxl] л интерлюдия introduce [mtre'djiKs] л вставлять, по­мещать

Questions and Tasks

1. What became a very popular genre of literature during the Renaissance?

2. Describe the Renaissance dramas.

3. What were the oldest plays in England?

4. When did the "Mysteries" give way to "Morality" plays?

5. What plays were called "Masques"?

John Lyly [ 'lih] (1554— 1606) —Джон Лили, англ. писатель и драматург Thomas Kyd (1558 — 1594) — Томас Кид, англ. драматург

 

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6. Describe the Globe theatre, built in 1599.

7. Talk about the first plays written in imitation of Ancient Roman tragedies and comedies.

8. What were the names of the greatest playwrights of the time?

9. Who were among the "University Wits"?

to reveal the suffering of man. Marlowe introduced blank verse in his tragedies and pointed out the way to William Shakespeare, the greatest of the Renaissance humanists. In imagination, richness of expression, originality and general poetic and dramatic power he is inferior to Shakespeare alone in the 16th century.

 

Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593)

Christopher Marlowe [ 'kristsfa 'ma:bu] was a young dramatist who surpassed all his contemporaries. His father was a shoemaker in Canterbury. Christopher Marlowe studied at Cam­bridge University and was greatly in­fluenced by the ideas of the Renais­sance. Almost nothing is known of his life after he left the University. He was killed at a tavern at the age of twenty-nine.

Christopher Marlowe

Christopher Marlowe is famous for his four tragedies: Tamburlaine ['tajmbalein] the Great; Doctor Faus-tus ['fo:stas]; The Jew of Malta ['molts] and Edward II.

Marlowe approached history from a Renaissance point of view. His tragedies show strong men who fight for their own benefit. No enemy can overcome them except death. They are great per­sonalities who challenge men and gods with their strength.

Doctor Faustus is considered to be the best of his works. Mar­lowe used in it the German legend of a scholar who for the sake of knowledge sold his soul to the devil. Dr. Faustus wants to have power over the world: "All things that move between the quiet poles shall be at my command". The devil serves him twenty-four years. When Faustus sees the beautiful Helen he wants to get his soul back. It is too late.

Marlowe's plays taught people to understand a tragedy which was not performed just to show horror and crime on the stage, but

Vocabulary

approach [s'prautj] v подходить             inferior [т'йэпй] п стоящий ниже

blank verse ['bter)k'v3:s] n белый стих   overcome [ 'эотэклт] v (overcame;
challenge ['tfaslmcfe] v вызывать на со- overcome) побороть, преодолеть

ревнование                                        reveal [n'vi:l] v показывать

contemporary [кэп'temparan] n совре-  scholar ['sknlg] n ученый

менник                                                soul [saul] n душа

devil ['devil] n дьявол                               surpass [s9'pa:s] v превосходить

for the sake of ради                                  tavern ['taevan] n таверна
horror ['гтгэ] п ужас

Questions and Tasks

1. Tell the main facts of Marlowe's life.

2. What is Marlowe's famous for?

3. Comment on his tragedies.

4. What is considered to be the best of his works?

5. What can you say about the plot of Doctor Faustus?

6. Speak on the meaning of Marlowe's plays.

William Shakespeare (1564-1616)

The great poet and dramatist William Shakespeare was a genius formed by the epoch of the Renaissance.

He is often called by his people "Our National Bard" (bard = a singer of ancient songs, a poet), "The Immortal Poet of Nature" (When the English people called Shakespeare "the poet of Na­ture" they meant "the poet of realism", but they didn't know such a word then) and "the Great Unknown". Indeed very little can be told about his life with certainty, as no biography of Shakespeare was published during his life time nor for 93 years after his death.

 

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Yet, patient research by certain scho­lars has uncovered the biography, but not fully.

William Shakespeare

William Shakespeare was born at Stratford-on-Avon feivan] on the 23rd of April, 1564. His father, John Shakespeare, was a farmer's son, who came to Stratford in 1551 and became a prosperous tradesman. John Shakespeare was elected al­derman and later by the time his eld­est children were born he acted as bailiff which meant he had to keep order in the town according to the local laws. John Shakespeare was illiterate; he marked his name by a cross because he was unable to write it.

His mother, Mary Arden [' mean ' a:dn] was a farmer's daughter. John and Mary had eight children, four girls and four boys, but their two eldest daughters died at an early age. The third child was William. William was a boy of a free and open nature, much like his mother who was a woman of a lively disposition. Of Shake­speare's education we know little, except that for a few years he attended the local grammar school where he learned some Latin, Greek, arithmetic and a few other subjects. His real teachers, meanwhile, were the men and women around him. Stratford was a charming little town in the very centre of England. Near at hand was the Forest of Arden, the old castles of Warwick and Kenilworth, and the old Roman camps and military roads. The beauty of the place must have influenced powerfully to the poet's imagination.

When Shakespeare was about fourteen years old, his father lost his property and fell into debt and so the boy had to leave school and help his family. On leaving school, William Shakespeare be­gan to learn foreign languages. His father had an Italian in his house who was quite a good scholar. This Italian taught William the Italian language, brushed up his Latin and studied the poetry of many Latin, Greek and Italian authors with him.

William was still a boy when his first poems appeared. Writing poems was very common in Shakespeare's days. It was called son-

netising [' sonitaizin]. His future wife Anne Hathaway [' sen' haeQawei] also expressed her feeling for William in verse. Anne and William met by the river Avon, and she calls him "Sweet Swan of Avon". In his nineteenth year William Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway, the daughter of a well-to-do farmer. They had three children — Susanna [su: 'zaena], and the twins, Judith [ 'd^urdiG] and Hamnet. A few years later after his marriage, about the year 1587, Shakespeare left his native town for London.

At this time the drama was gaining rapidly in popularity through the work of the University Wits. Shakespeare soon turned to the stage and became first an actor, and then a "play patcher", be­cause he altered and improved the existing dramas. Thus he gained a practical knowledge of the art of play writing. Soon he began to write plays of his own, first comedies and then historical plays. New plays by William Shakespeare appeared almost every year be­tween 1590 and 1613, in some years one play, more often two.

Shakespeare's birthplace

)

In 1593 and 1594 he published two long poems — Venus and Adonis ['vi:nas and a 'dauniz] and Lucrece [ 'lu:kri:s]. Both poems were dedicated to the young Earl of Southampton f sauQ' aemptan], a great admirer of Shakespeare's plays. Until Shakespeare print­ed his poems the public had no idea he was a poet. He was known as an actor and a writer of plays. At that time playwrights wrote for a definite theatrical company, and the theatre became the owner of the play. Shakespeare's plays were very popular. Actors and writers

 

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respected him and admired his genius. As his popularity with the people grew, the aristocracy too became interested in his work. When Queen Elizabeth wanted to see a play, she usually ordered a performance at court.

In 1594 Shakespeare became a member of the Lord Chamber­lain's ['tfeimbalmz] company of actors. He wrote plays for the com­pany and acted in them. His early plays were performed in the play­houses known as "The Theatre" and "The Curtain". When the com­pany built the "Globe" theatre most of his greatest plays were performed there. By that time Shakespeare was acknowledged to be the greatest of English dramatists. His career as a dramatist lasted for nearly twenty-one years. His financial position also improved. He was a shareholder of the "Globe" theatre and he purchased property in Stratford and in London. But the years which brought prosperity also brought sorrows. He lost his only son, his brother and parents.

In spite of prosperity he must have left lonely among the people surrounding him. In 1612 he returned to Stratford-on-Avon for good. The last years of his life Shakespeare spent in Stratford. He died on the 23rd of April 1616. He is buried in his native town Strat-ford-on-Avon. In 1616 a month before his death he wrote his will.

On his tomb there are,four lines which are said to have been written by William Shakespeare:

Good friend, for Jesus' sale forbear To dig the dust enclosed here; Blessed be he that spares these stones, And cursed be he that moves my bones.

These lines prevented the removal of his remains to West­minster Abbey; only a monument was erected to his memory in Poets' Corner.

Vocabulary

acknowledge [sk'rrohcfc] v признавать alter ['э:кэ] v переделывать

admirer [ad'maiara] n поклонник           bailiff ['beilif] n судебный пристав

alderman ['э:Шэтэп] п олдермен, член bless [bles] v благословлять

муниципалитета                               brush up [ЬглГ] v заниматься

 

lively ['laivli] а живой patcher ['paet/э] n работник, произво­дящий мелкий ремонт prevent [pn 'vent] v мешать, не до­пускать property [ 'propati] n собственность, имущество prosperous fprosparas] а состоятельный prosperity [pros'panti] n процветание, успех purchase ['p3:tjbs] v покупать remains [ri'memz] n останки, прах removal [n'murvsl] n перемещение research [n's3:tf] n исследование, изу­чение shareholder ['/еэ,пэиЫэ] п акционер sonnetise ['snnatarz] v сочинять сонеты spare [spea] v сберегать tomb [tu:m] n надгробный памятник well-to-do ['welts'du:] а состоятельный

certainty ['s3:tnti] л уверенность common ['кшттэп] а обычный company [ 'клтрэш] п театральная

труппа confer [кэпТз:] a title давать титул curse [k3:s] v проклинать debt [det] n долг dedicate ['dedikeit] v посвящать definite ['defmit] а определенный disposition [^disps'zifgn] n характер epoch ['i:pDk] n эпоха erect [1'rekt] v воздвигать financial [fai'nasnfsl] а финансовый forbear [fo:'bes] v (forbore; forborne)

воздерживаться gain [gem] v добиться genius ['cfemjss] n гений illiterate [r'litarit] а неграмотный immortal [i'mo:tl] а бессмертный Jesus ['djfczss] n Иисус

Questions and Tasks

1. What titles have the English people conferred on William Shakespeare?

2. Where was Shakespeare born?

3. When was he born?

4. What did his father, John Shakespeare, do?

5. How many children did John and Mary Shakespeare have?

6. What kind of boy was William?

7. What do we know of Shakespeare's education?

8. What must have influenced powerfully to the poet's imagination?

9. What happened when William was about fourteen years old?

 

10. When did his poems begin to appear?

11. When did he marry Anne Hathaway?

12. How many children did they have?

13. Talk about the first period of Shakespeare's life in London.

14. What poems did he publish in 1593 and 1594?

15. To whom were these poems dedicated?

16. When did he become a member of the Lord Chamberlain's company of actors?

17. Where were most of Shakespeare's plays performed?

18. Prove that his financial position improved.

19. When did Shakespeare return to Stratford-on-Avon?

20. When did he die?

 

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Shakespeare's Literary Work

William Shakespeare is one of those rare geniuses of mankind who have become landmarks in the history of world culture.

Poet and playwright William Shakespeare was one of the great­est titans of Renaissance.

A phenomenally prolific writer, William Shakespeare wrote 37 plays, 154 sonnets and two narrative poems. Shakespeare's plays belong to different dramatic genres. They are histories (chronicle plays), tragedies, comedies and tragic-comedies.

Shakespeare's literary work is usually divided into three pe­riods:

• The first period — from 1590 to 1601 — when he wrote his­tories, comedies and sonnets.

• The second period — from 1601 to 1608 — was the period of tragedies.

• The third period — from 1608 to 1612 — when he wrote mostly tragic-comedies.

These three periods are sometimes called optimistic, pessimis­tic and romantic.

Vocabulary

landmark ['laendma:k] n веха                prolific [prs'lifik] а плодовитый

narrative ['nseratrv] а повествовательный rare [геэ] а редкий

phenomenally [fi'rrommli] adv необык- titan ['taitgn] n титан
новенно

The First Period Comedies

The first period is marked by youthful optimism, great imagi­nation and extravagance of language. In these years Shake­speare created a brilliant cycle of comedies. They are all written in his playful manner. The gay and witty heroes and heroines of

The Globe

comedies come into conflict with unfavourable circumstances and wicked people. But their love and friendship, intellect and faithfulness always take the upper hand¹.

The comedies are written in the bright spirit of the Renaissance. The heroes are the creators of their own fate, that is to say they rely on their cleverness to achieve happiness. Shakespeare trusted man's virtues and believed that virtue could bring happiness to mankind. Shakespeare was optimistic, therefore love of life is the main feature of his comedies, notable for their wit, comic charac­ters and situations, for the smoothly flowing language and harmo­nious composition. Shakespeare's comedies were written to take the spectator away from everyday troubles. In them people lived for merriment, pleasure and love.

The best comedies of that period are:

Love's Labour's Lost— 1590,

The Comedy of Errors — 1591,

The Two Gentlemen of Verona [уГгэипэ] — 1592,

A Midsummer Night's Dream — 1594,

¹ take the upper hand — побеждают

 

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The Merchant of Venice ['vems] — 1595,

The Taming of the Shrew [fru:] — 1596,

Much Ado About Nothing — 1599,

The Merry Wives of Windsor ['wmza] — 1599,

As You Like It — 1600,

Twelfth Night — 1600.

Twelfth Night

Twelfth Night is one of the most charming and perfect of Shakespeare's plays. It was the last of his merry comedies. After­wards he wrote mainly tragedies. The play was written to say good-bye to the Christmas holidays which were celebrated with great pomp and lasted for twelve days. Twelfth Night was the end of merry-making. Hence the title of the comedy.

The plot of the play is centred round Viola ( vaiab]. She is a clever, intelligent and noble-hearted woman. Making a sea voyage she and her twin brother Sebastian [si 'baestjan] are shipwrecked on the coast of Illyria governed by Duke Orsino [of si:rau]. The captain of the ship

brings Viola safe to shore. Her brother has apparently drowned. The captain tells Viola that Duke Orsino is in love with Countess Olivia [t> '1тэ] whose father and brother have recently died. For the love of them she avoids people. Viola wishes to serve this lady, but Olivia admits no person into her house. Then she makes up her mind to serve Orsino as a page under the name of Cesario [si 'zemau]. She puts on her brother's clothes, and looks exactly like him. Strange errors happen as the twins are mistaken for each other.

The Duke is fond of Cesario and tells him about his love for Olivia and sends him to her house to talk to her about his love. Viola goes there unwillingly because she herself loves Orsino.

On seeing Cesario Olivia falls in love with him, "I love thee¹ so, that, in spite of your pride, nor wit nor reason can my passion hide". ; In vain, Cesario's resolution is "never to love any woman". In the meantime Sebastian comes to Olivia's house, she mistakes him for Cesario and proposes they should marry. Sebastian agrees. Soon Cesario — Viola enters. Everybody wonders at seeing two persons with the same face and voice. When all the errors are cleared up, they laugh at Olivia for falling in love with a woman. Orsino, seeing that Cesario would look beautiful in a woman's clothes, says to him that for the faithful service Viola has done for him so much be­neath her soft and tender breeding, and since she has called him master so long, she should now be her master's mistress, and Orsino's true duchess. The twin brother and sister are wedded on the same day: Viola becomes the wife of Orsino, the Duke of Illyria, Sebastian — the husband of the rich and noble Countess Olivia.

In the character of Viola Shakespeare embodied the new ideal of a woman, which was very different from that of feudal times. The woman described in the literature of the Middle Ages, espe­cially in the romances, were shown as passive objects of love.

Shakespeare shows that women have the right to equality and independence. Viola defends her right to happiness and love.

 

The stage where "Tweifth Night" was performed

¹ thee — you

 

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Vocabulary

admit [ad'mit] v допускать

apparently [s'peeranth] adv очевидно; по-видимому

avoid [a'void] v избегать

breeding ['bri:dirj] n воспитание

countess ['kauntis] n графиня

cycle ['saikl] n цикл

drown [draun] v тонуть

duchess ['d\tjis] n герцогиня

embody [im'bndi] v воплощать

error ['era] n ошибка

extravagance [iks'trsevigans] n экстра­вагантность

feature ['fi:tfa] л черта

harmonious [hafmaunjas] а гармоничный

Sonnets

hence ['hens] adv отсюда merriment ['menmant] n веселье notable ['nautabl] а известный, выда­ющийся pomp [primp] n помпа, пышность propose [ргэ 'pauz] v делать предло­жение (о браке) rely [n'lai] v полагаться, доверять smoothly ['smvxdh] adv плавно tender ['tends] а нежный, заботливый twin [twin] n близнец unfavourable [лп 'feivarabl] а небла­гоприятный wicked ['wikid] а злой witty ['witi] а остроумный

Sonnet 66

Tired with all these, for restful death I cry, As, to behold¹ Desert a beggar born, And needy Nothing trimm'd in jolity² And purest Faith unhappily forsworn,³

And golded Honour shamefully misplaced, And maiden Virtue rudely strumpeted⁴ And right Perfection wrongfully disgraced, And Strength by limping Sway⁵ disabled,

And Art made tongue — tied by Authority, And Folly doctor-like⁶ controlling Skill, And simple Truth miscall'd Simplicity,⁷ And captive Good attending captain 111.⁸

Tired with all these, from these would I be gone, Save⁹ that, to die, I leave my love alone.

 

The sonnet is a poetical form that appeared in Italy in the 14th century. It was introduced into English literature during the first period of the Renaissance. Shakespeare's sonnet has 14 lines. It is divided into three stanzas of four lines with a final rhyming couplet ['k/vpht].

The sonnets of Shakespeare were published in 1609, but were probably written between 1597— 1600. The first 126 are ad­dressed to a man. A certain "W. H." whose identity remains un­known. He is the author's friend, and the sonnets are addressed to him. Shakespeare complains of his hard life in which his love for his friend is the only comfort (sonnets 26 — 29), but his friend often forgets him (sonnet 33).

Beginning with sonnet 127 a new person appears — The Dark Lady. The authors and his friend are in love with her. The authors both loves her and hates her for making him and his friend suffer (sonnet 133). Thus the sonnets are connected by their common theme — love and friendship. But this is not the only theme of the sonnets. In one of his best sonnets, 66, Shakespeare expresses his indignation with the state of things around him.

Sonnet 91

Some glory in their birth, some in their skill, Some in their wealth, some in their body¹⁰ forth; Some in their garments¹¹, though new-fangled¹² ill; Some in their hawks and hounds¹³, some in their horse;

¹ behold — see

² trimm'd in jollity — dressed gaily

³ to forswear — to swear falsely

⁴ strumpeted — violated

⁵ sway — motion; rule

⁶ doctor-like — pretending to know much

⁷ simplicity — here stupidity

⁸ captive Good attending captain 111 — Virtue, a prisoner, serving Evil

⁹ save — except

¹⁰ body¹—body's

¹¹ garments — clothes

¹² new-fangled — fond of novelty

¹³ hounds — dogs for chase, hunting

 

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г

And every humor hath¹ his adjunct² pleasure, Wherein it finds a joy above the rest; But these particulars are not my measure, All these I better in one general best.

Thy³ love is better than high birth to me, Richer than wealth, prouder than garments' cost, Of more delight than hawks or horses be; And having thee⁴, of all men's pride I boast.

Wretched in this alone, that thou mayst⁵ take. All this away and me most wretched make.

Sonnet 130

My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun; Coral is far more red than her lips' red; If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun; If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head.

I have seen roses damasked, red and white, But no such roses see I in her cheeks; And in some perfumes is there more delight Than in the breath that from my mistress reeks.

I love to hear her speak, — yet well I know

That music hath a far more pleasing sound;

I grant I never saw a goddess go —

My mistress when she walks treads on the ground

And yet, by heaven, I think my love as rare As any she belied with false compare.

¹ hath — has

² adjunct — subordinate thing

³ thy — your

⁴ thee — you

⁵ thou mayst ['dau'meist] — you may

All Shakespeare's sonnets have been translated into Russian by S. Marshak, the well-known poet.

S. Marshak was not the first to translate the sonnets into Rus­sian, but if were not for Marshak's translations the sonnets would be known only to a small circle of specialists.

Vocabulary

identity [ai'dentiti] n личность indignation [^indig'neifan] n возмуще­ние, негодование maiden ['meidn] n девушка novelty ['rrovslti] n новшество preserve [pn'z3:v] v сохранять reek [ri:k] v пахнуть rhyming ['raimirj] а рифмующий subordinate [sa'bo:dnit] а подчиненный tread [tred] v (trod; trodden) ступать violate ['vaialeit] v осквернять

adjunct ['aed^Arjkt] а дополнительный breast [brest] n грудь comfort ['kAmfst] n утешение complain [kam'plem] v жаловаться couplet ['kAplit] n рифмованное дву ­ стишие damask ['daemssk] а алый desert [di'z3:t] n заслуга disgrace [dis'greis] v позорить , бесчес ­ тить dun [ алп ] а темный

Histories

Richard the Third

During the first period Shake­speare wrote histories (chronicles) which are a poetic history of Eng­land. Shakespeare gives a broad panorama of England life. Scenes of private life alternate with epi­sodes of war and political intri­gues. Shakespeare shows the ter­rible world of feudal relations be­tween people. The histories show the defeat of the feudal lords and the necessity of a strong national state united under the power of the king.

The historical plays (chronicles) are:

 

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King Henry VI — 1592,

The Tragedy of King Richard III — 1593,

Titus Andronicus ['taitassn'dromkas] — 1594,

The Tragedy of King Richard II — 1594,

The Life and Death of King John — 1594,

King Henry TV— 1597,

The Life of King Henry V— 1599.

It is true that the historical dramas or chronicles, full of tragic events and bloodshed, also belong to the first period, but if we regard them in the order in which they are written, it turns out that they too have a happy end.

Two tragedies Romeo and Juliet [ 'гэигшэи and 'd3u:ljst] (1593) and Julius Caesar ['d3u:ljas 'si:za] (1599) were written during this

period too.

Tragedy does not belong to one single period of Shakespeare's work. It is with him in the first two stages of his literary career.

Romeo and Juliet

Romeo and Juliet was Shakespeare's first tragedy. He turned from the romantic comedies to make the romantic tragedy of Romeo and Juliet. The play is still very popular and the names of Romeo and Juliet are used to describe any great lovers.

In the tragedy the problem of love is raised to a deep social problem. The play treats love as a serious tragic subject.

Romeo and Juliet are the victims of a long senseless feud be­tween their families. The world of the Montagues ['rrrontsgjuiz] and Capulets fkaepjulats] is antagonistic to their love. The young people are to fight against feudal traditions and patriarchal morality.

The death of the young people makes the older generation realize the absurdity of their feud and leads to the reconciliation of the two families. The tragedy ends in an optimistic mood.

Vocabulary

absurdity [sb's3:diti] n нелепость           intrigue [in'trig] n интрига

alternate ['o:lt3neit] v чередоваться        patriarchal [ ,peitn'а:кэ1] a патриар-

bloodshed ['bL\dJed] n кровопролитие       хальный

chronicle ['kronikl] n хроника (истори- reconciliation [ гекэгшЬ'ег/эп] n при-

ческая)                                                        мирение

feud [fju:d] n вражда                                  treat [tri:t] v рассматривать

frame [freim] n обрамление                    victim ['viktim] n жертва
history fhistsn] л историческая пьеса

Questions and Tasks

1. How many plays and sonnets did Shakespeare write?

2. What are Shakespeare's genres?

3. What are the periods of Shakespeare's creative work?

4. What are the characteristic features of Shakespeare's comedies?

5. Name the best Shakespeare's comedies.

6. What is the plot of Twelfth Nighf?

7. What features of Shakespeare's comedies can be found in Twelfth Nighf?

8. What ideas did Shakespeare embody in the character of Viola?

9. What is a sonnet?

 

10. When was it introduced into English literature?

11. What is a Shakespeare sonnet?

12. What are Shakespeare's sonnets about?

13. Talk about the main idea of sonnet 66.

14. Point out the lines which form the frame. What is the function of this frame?

15. What is the main idea of sonnet 91?

16. In what other sonnet does Shakespeare deal with the same problem?

17. How did Shakespeare describe his beloved in sonnet 130?

18. Who gave Shakespeare's sonnets new life and made them part of Russian poetry?

19. What other plays belong to the first period of Shakespeare's creative work? Name them.

20. What are the themes of the histories?

21. What tragedies belong to this period too?

22. What is the central theme of the tragedy Romeo and Juliet?

 

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The Second Period

(1601-1608)

Shakespeare's dramatic genius was at its highest in the second period of his literary work, when all of Shakespeare's famous trage­dies appeared. In the plays of this period the dramatist reaches his full maturity. He presents great human problems. Shakespeare proves that it is not enough to be clever in order to achieve happi­ness, that human relations derive from social problems. He shows the social injustice and suffering of man. Something must be done to change the world, the laws of man and his morals. This is particu­larly stressed in the great tragedies of Hamlet and King Lear [lis].

Shakespeare showed that people had to look for another and more perfect life. Society could achieve progress and happiness only through struggle. He had faith in man's virtue. In Shake­speare's tragedies the evil forces are victorious only to a certam point, in the end the good wins.

Shakespeare's characters are personalities of great depth and unusual intellect. At the same time he has created real, ordinary men.

Each tragedy portrays some noble figure caught in a difficult situation. A man's tragedy is not individual, it is spread to other people as well.

In ancient tragedies man was helpless. His life depended on fate. Shakespeare's man acts in a concrete social and political world.

During the second period Shakespeare wrote the following tragedies: Hamlet, Prince of Denmark — 1602, Troilus and Cressida— 1603, Othello [эи'0е1эи], the Moor of Venice fvenis] — 1604, King Lear— 1605, Macbeth [mak'beG] — 1606, Алголу and Cleopatra [ 'aentaniand ,klia'palra] — 1607, Coriolanus [кэипэ 'lamas] — 1608, Timon ofAtheus [ 'taiman av 'seGmz] — 1608.

He also wrote a few comedies: All's Well that Eds Well — 1602, Measure for Measure — 1604, Pericles, Prince of Tyre ['penkli:z] — 1608. These have been named the dark comedies and differ from those written during the first period as they have many tragic ele­ments in them.

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Vocabulary

y.

moral ['moral] n зрелость personality [,p3:s3'naeliti] n личность spread [spred] v распространяться

'erive [di'raiv] v происходить aith [fei9] л вера maturity [ma'tjusnti] n p/нормы нрав­ственного поведения

Tragedies Hamlet

Shakespeare's greatest trage­dies are Hamlet, Othello, King Lear and Macbeth.

Hamlet is a philosophical dra­ma, the tragedy of a humanist. It is the most widely staged, read and discussed of all Shakespeare's tragedies.

Hamlet, Prince of Denmark

Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, is at the University of Wittenberg. A poor student Horatio [ho'reijiau] becomes his friend. Unexpected­ly Hamlet learns of his father's death and hurries home to Elsi-nore. On his arrival Hamlet is shocked at finding his mother married to his uncle, his father's brother, Claudius f'kb:djas], who becomes King of Denmark.

The scene is laid in Denmark. It is night. Several soldiers are on guard. They are talking about the ghost that appears near the cas­tle every night. The soldiers start to speak to him, but the ghost does not answer and disappears. They tell Hamlet about the ghost. Soon Hamlet comes and sees the ghost. In the ghost he recognizes the image of his father. The ghost beckons him and in spite of Ho­ratio's warnings Hamlet follows him. The ghost tells Hamlet that

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his father has been treacherously killed by his brother Claudius. Claudius poured some poison into his ear while he was asleep in the garden. Having married Queen Gertrude [ 'g3:tru:d] he inhe-rited the throne. The ghost calls on Hamlet to avenge his father's death.

Hamlet is overwhelmed. He takes an oath to avenge his death. So Hamlet pretends to be mad and makes biting remarks to the Queen, King and all the courtiers.

Polonius [рэ 'bunjas], one of the Queen's courtiers, has two children, a daughter Ophelia [t>'fi:lja] and a son Laertes [lei'3:ti:z]. Hamlet loves Ophelia, but he puts aside his love and simulates madness to conceal his plans.

Hamlet's mother thinks it is only her unfaithfulness that has made him mad, and Polonius thinks Hamlet's love for his daugh­ter is the only reason. Ophelia in her natural simplicity admires Hamlet, but in her blind obedience to her father she avoids him. Seeing the change in Hamlet, her heart nearly breaks with pity and sorrow. Hamlet wants to force the King to admit his crime When a company of actors visits the castle, he arranges a play in which the actors perform the scene of a king's murder.

Hamlet wants to make sure of the King's guilt. He says:

"the play's the thing wherein I'll catchYne conscience of the king"

And so he does. The King now understands that Hamlet knows his secret. Hamlet watches the behaviour of the Queen and the King and becomes sure of the treacherous murder of his father. In confu­sion the King and Queen leave the performance. Soon Hamlet is called to his mother. He can't forgive her because she has married his father's murderer, and Hamlet tells her what he thinks of her. The Queen is frightened, she calls for help. During all this time Polo­nius stays hidden behind the curtains.

On hearing the Queen's cry for help he makes a move behind the curtains. Hamlet thinks that it is the King and kills him. The death of Polonius by Hamlet's hand is at the same time a crushing blow to Ophelia. She becomes insane and drowns herself. The death of Polonius gives the King grounds for sending Hamlet out of the kingdom. On board a ship Hamlet goes to England under

the care of two courtiers Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. They are given letters to the English court which read that Hamlet should be put to death as soon as he lands in England. Hamlet, suspect­ing some treachery, secretly gets the letters, and changes his name for the names of the courtiers. Soon after that their ship is attacked by pirates and Hamlet is taken prisoner but then he is set free. When Hamlet gets home the first thing he sees is the funeral of Ophelia.

On learning of Hamlet's return the King thinks of a plan to do away with Hamlet. He persuades Laertes to challenge Ham­let to a duel and advises Laertes to prepare a poisoned weapon. In the duel Laertes inflicts a mortal wound on Hamlet. And then Hamlet and Laertes exchange swords and Hamlet wounds Laertes with his own poisoned sword. At that moment, the Queen, who is also present at the duel, cries out that she is poi­soned. She has drunk out of a glass of poisoned wine which the King prepared for Hamlet. The Queen dies. Laertes, feeling his life go, tells Hamlet that Claudius is the cause of all the misfor­tunes. With his last strength Hamlet kills him with his spear and both of them die.

Hamlet's last words are addressed to his friend Horatio whom he asks to tell his story to the world, as if commanding others to continue the struggle after his death.

Vocabulary

ghost [gaust] n привидение, призрак ground [graund] n основание, причина guilt [gilt] n вина inflict [m'flikt] v наносить (удар, рану и т. п.) inherit [m'hent] v наследовать mortal ['mo:tl] о смертельный oath [эи9] п клятва obedience [a'bMjans] n послушание, повиновение overwhelm Lauvs'welm] v потрясать, ошеломлять pour [рэ:] v лить

admit [gd'mit] v признать avenge [э'уепф] v отомстить beckon ['Ьекэп] v манить к себе biting ['baitirj] а резкий; острый cause [ko:z] n причина challenge ['tfaelmd3] v вызывать conceal [ksn'si:l] v скрывать confusion [kan'fjirpn] n замешатель

ство, смущение conscience ['krmjsns] n совесть courtier ['ko:tjg] n придворный crushing ['krAJirj] а сокрушительный funeral ['fjuinaral] n похороны

 

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treacherously ['tretjbresli] adv преда тельски treachery [ 'tretjan] n предательство, измена warning ['wo:nirj] n предупреждение

I /

remark [n'ma:kj n замечание simulate ['simjuleit] v притворяться spear [spis] n копье suspect [sgs'pekt] v подозревать treacherous f tretfsras] о предательский, вероломный

The Image of Hamlet

Hamlet is one of the most difficult tragedies to interpret. No work of world literature has caused so many explanations as Ham-let. The reason for it is Hamlet's behaviour. Shakespeare's Ham let is a typical man of the Renaissance — well educated and noble, open-hearted, clever and generous. He loves life; he believes in man and is full of hopes and noble desires. But suddenly Hamlet understands that the world is not the place only for good hopes and noble desires: his father is murdered by his uncle, and his mother becomes his wife thus helping Claudius to become king.

Hamlet grieves that injustice triumphs over justice, that cruel rulers are tyrannizing the people, that his beloved country has be­come a prison for people. The contradiction between his noble ideals and reality is one of the^reasons for Hamlet's disappointment.

As a character Hamlet is many-sided. He is courageous. He does not fear to look the truth in the face. He knows that revenge is easy. But it is not merely revenge that Hamlet seeks. He feels that he "was born to set the world aright" and this can be done only by exposing the very roots of the reigning evil. Therefore he decides to unveil the crimes of Claudius to the people and to establish the reign of justice in Denmark. So Hamlet's capacity for action, decisiveness and ini­tiative are one part of his nature. On the other hand he doubts, puts things off, falls into complete pessimism, avoids action. Ham­let meditates on the problems of life and death, struggle and irreso­lution, love and hatred. His meditations are well reflected in his fa­mous monologue (soliloquy [sn'libkwi]). "To be or not to be?" He passionately seeks the key to the understanding of life. He is ready to devote his life to the task "to set the world aright", though he foresees "a sea of troubles" before him, which cannot be overcome.

Hamlet's Soliloquy

To be, or not to be, — that is the question;

Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer

The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,

Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,

And by opposing end them? To die, — to sleep;

No more; and, by a sleep, to say we end

The heart-ache, and the thousand natural shocks

That flesh is heir to, — 'tis is a consummation '

Devoutly to be wish'd. To die, — to sleep; —

To sleep! perchance² to dream: ay, there's the rub³;

For in that sleep of death what dreams may come

When we have shuffled off this mortal coil \

Must give us pause; there's the respect⁵

That makes calamity of so long life;

For who would bear the whips and scorns of time,

The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely⁰

The pangs of despis'd love, the law's delay⁷

The insolence of office⁸, and the spurns⁹

That patient merit of the unworthy takes¹⁰,

When he himself might his quietus " make

With a bare bodkin¹² ? Who would fardels¹³ bear,

To grunt and sweat under a weary life,

But that¹⁴ the dread of something after death,

¹ consummation — fulfilment

² perchance — perhaps

³ rub — here: obstacle

⁴ when we have shuffled — when we die

⁵ there's the respect — that is what we fear

⁶ contumely — contempt in speech or acts
' delay — the putting off

⁸ the insolence of office — the shameless bullying at government departments

^I spurns —- contemptuous refuses

¹⁰ That patient merit of the unworthy takes — That patient and worthy people receive from the unworthy

^II quietus [kwai 'i:tss] — end of things; death

¹² with a bare bodkin — with a simple dagger

¹³ fardels — burdens

¹⁴ but that — if not for

 

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The undiscover'd country, from whose bourn

No traveller returns, puzzles the will,

And makes us rather bear those ills we have,

Than fly others that we know not of?

Thus conscience¹ does make cowards of us all;

And thus the native hue² of resolution

Is sicklied o'er³ with the pale cast of thought;

And enterprises of great pitch and moment⁴,

With this regard, their currents turn awry⁵,

And lose the name of action... Soft you now!

The fair Ophelia? Nymph, in thy orisons⁶

Be all my sins remembered.

Act HI, Scene 1

Hamlet hesitates because he is afraid to take a false step which might lead him against his humanist ideals.

So Hamlet is not a fighter by nature, he is a learned man, a philosopher. Hamlet decides to be, to act — to fight and to con­quer. At the end of the tragedy he achieves his aims. His victory is that he has overcome his own doubts. He knows that his struggle will continue for years to come.

Hamlet is one of the greatest characters in world literature and the play is the internal drama of a human soul. The Renais­sance atmosphere of art and learning governs this play, in which the central character is himself a Renaissance man.

Vocabulary

account [s'kaunt] v объяснять                capacity [kg'psesiti] n способность

bully ['bull] v запугивать                           contemptuous [ksn'temptjuss] a npe-
calamity [ka'laemiti] n несчастье             зрительный

¹ conscience — here: thoughts

² hue — here: healthy feeling

³ It sicklied o'er — Is made unhealthy, sick

⁴ enterprises of great pitch and moment — honourable beginnings of
great actual deeds

⁵ turn awry [a'rai] — turn in a wrong manner (awry — wrong)

⁶ orisons ['onzanz] — prayers

 

interpret [m't3:pnt] v объяснить irresolution [i,reza'lu:j3n] n нерешитель­ность; сомнение meditate ['mediteit] v размышлять meditation [medi'teifan] n размышление oppose [э'рэиг] v сопротивляться outrageous [aut'reirips] а жестокий reflect [n'flekt] v отражать seek [si:k] v (sought) искать triumph [traismf] v торжествовать tyrannize ['tiranaiz] v быть тираном unveil [An'veil] v раскрывать

contradiction [,kontra'dikf9n] n проти­воречие decisiveness [di'saisrvnis] n решительность devoutly [di'vautli] adv искренне doubt [daut] v сомневаться expose [iks'pguz] v разоблачать forsee [fo:'si:] v jforsaw; forseen) пред­видеть grieve [gri:v] v горевать heir [еэ] п наследник grunt [grAnt] v ворчать internal [m't3:nl] а внутренний

The Story of King Lear

King Lear is a family trage­dy set against the background of the social and political life of late f eudalism. It is a play about the clash between cruelty, sel­fishness, ambition on the one hand, honesty, justice and hu­manity on the other.

King Lear

The tragedy takes us back to the days of ancient Britain. Lear is portrayed as a big feu­dal landowner. In the course of long years of glorious rule his heart has become filled with pride and complete ab­sence of doubt in the right­eousness of his own ways.

He is 80 and is ready to divide his kingdom and give all affairs of the state over to his three daughters Goneril f gunanl], Regan [' ri:gan] and Cordelia ['ko:'di:lJ3]. Goneril is married to the Duke of Albany ['э:1Ьэш], and Regan to the Duke of Cornwall. Two foreigners — the Duke of Burgundy [ 'b3:gandi] and the King of France are seeking the hand of his youngest daughter Cordelia. The King is going to

 

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give away his beloved daughter to one of them. At this moment the old man is full of pride — the pride of a king and a father. He decides to test his daughters: the greatest share will be given to the daughter who will best express her love for him. Goneril and Regan declare that they love him more than their honour, beauty and health. The King is pleased and gives them each one third of the kingdom. Cordelia is ashamed to repeat these words of flattery, for she loves truth and honesty. Her answer is different:

Good, my Lord,

You have begot me, bred me, lov'd me: I

Return those duties back as are right fit',

Obey you, love you, and most honour you.

Why have my sisters husbands, if they say

They love you all? Happily, when I shall wed,

That lord whose hand must take my plight² shall carry

Half my love with him, half my care and duty:

Sure I shall never marry like my sisters,

To love my father all.

The King spoilt by flattery is hurt and disowns her. No one dares to defend the unhappy Cordelia except the King's coun­sellor Kent, and the King of France who asks her to go with him to France.

Now Lear will live in turn with Goneril and Regan. His two elder daughters insult him, shut their doors on him and let him out in a thunderstorm. Lear is surprised to see that their attitude to him has changed. From this moment on his heart has no peace. He is only a poor, old, weak and despised man. The family respected and obeyed him only because he was in power. With Lear's degradation the poet shows that the feudal order is break­ing up. His two eldest daughters represent the new class. They are selfish, cruel, false, vulgar, full of plots. Their hearts are hard­ened.

¹ as are right fit — as ought to be done.

² plight — engagement, promise to marry.

 

 

The King's mind has clouded over, but under hard trials in suffering and pain he goes through a moral evolution and be­comes humane. He understands the injustice of the order he once represented. He understands his mistake.

Shakespeare is a great master of plot. In King Lear we find a double plot. On the one hand author reveals the family tragedy of King Lear, on the other hand he shows the fate of the Earl of Gloucester ['grosta].

Gloucester has two sons Edgar and Edmund. The latter is his illegitimate son. The consciousness of having no rights has made Edmund a cynical man. His aim is to get his brother's lands and power. By a treacherous letter he succeeds in setting his father against Edgar, whom Gloucester disinherits. Edgar has a coura­geous heart, but he has to run away to escape danger.

In the meantime Cordelia has sent troops to England to win back her father's kingdom. She finds her father in the field near Dover. Old Gloucester helped his master to reach this plade be­cause he knew of Cordelia's intention. Edmund told Cornwall this secret, and Gloucester's eyes were plucked out. Edgar, dis­guised has a beggar, helped him to reach Dover where Glouces­ter died. The British troops under Edmund's command win the French army, and Edmund orders Cordelia to be hanged.

Goneril and Regan are in love with Edmund. In a fit of jealousy Goneril poisons her sister Regan, she herself commits suicide when her husband learns about her plot. Wishing to revenge his father Edgar kills Edmond. So the evil forces do not triumph, but light comes too late. King Lear finds Cordelia, but she is dead. King Lear dies over her lifeless body. Edgar and the Duke of Al­bany are with him at this moment.

The story of King Lear with its horrors, cruelty and crime, as used by Shakespeare, showed the despotism of the age.

Vocabulary

commit [ka'mit] v совершать to commit suicide ['sjuisaid] совер­шить самоубийство consciousness ['krjnfssnis] л сознание

ambition [sem'bijbn] л честолюбие attitude ['aetitju:d] n отношение background ['bskgraund] n фон clash [klaef] л столкновение

 

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illegitimate [jli'cfeitimit] а незаконно­рожденный insult [m'sAlt] v оскорблять plot [plot] л заговор represent [^repn'zent] v представлять righteousness [ 'raitfasnis] л правед­ность; справедливость share [[еэ] л доля succeed [sak'sM] сдобиться trial [traial] л испытание

counsellor ['kaunsgls] л советник dare [dea] л сметь, отважиться despise [dis'paiz] v презирать disguise [dis'gaiz] v переодеться disown [dis'sun] v не признавать, от­рекаться evolution Li:va'lu:j3n] n развитие, рост fit [fit] л припадок flattery ['flstgn] л лесть humane [hju:'mem] а человечный

The Third Period                                      ^

(1608-1612)

During the third period of his literary career Shakespeare wrote the following plays:

Cymberline [ 'simbili:n] (1610), The Winter's Tale (1610), The Tempest (1611), Henry VIII (1613).

These plays are called romantic dramas. There are no great problems and strong conflicts in them. Shakespeare has entered into the beautiful world of fantasy and allegory. Still, all the plays are masterly written, and they express his belief in the future hap­piness of mankind.

Nature occupies an important place in Shakespeare's works. His own attitude to it changes as the author himself changes. In the early comedies his heroes find happiness and peace of mind in nature, in the tragedies nature turns against them, and in the ro­mantic dramas one feels that man can conquer nature.

Questions and Tasks

1. What plays was written by Shakespeare in the second period?

2. What problems does he present in the tragedies?

3. Compare the plays written in the second period with those written in the first. Comment on the change of mood in the second period.

4. What is the plot of Hamlet?

5. What makes Hamlet one of the greatest of Shakespeare's masterpieces?

6. What accounts for Hamlet's melancholy and irresolution?

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7. What does Hamlet feel he was born for?

8. How does Hamlet want to set the world aright?

i 9. What does Hamlet meditate over and where are his meditations reflected?

10. Read the soliloquy and be ready to translate and paraphrase any part of it.

11. What is the central idea of the soliloquy?

12. Pick out the lines whose idea reminds you of sonnet 66.

13. In what plays does Shakespeare deal with social problems?

14. What was the tragedy of Lear?

15. Does Shakespeare, by describing the family tragedy of King Lear, show the relations of man to man in society?

I 16. Comment on the development of Lear's character. 17. Describe the third period of Shakespeare's work.

Shakespeare's Contribution to the World Literature

To sum up we can say that during his life-time Shakespeare creat­ed a variety of plays and characters. The ideas set out by the Renais­sance, the struggle for happiness and freedom, are expressed by him I in the most realistic forms. Shakespeare's plays have become so pop-£ ular in the world because of his great humanist ideas and his realistic characters. Shakespeare did not idealize the people he portrayed. I He painted them as they were in his time. He created characters of J,' great depth and unusual intellects. We see a philosopher in Hamlet, a ! learned man in Horatio, a cunning diplomat in Claudius.

Many scholars have studied Shakespeare. These are the cen-; tral themes Shakespeare dealt with in his plays:

1. The idea of freedom for peoples. This is felt in his tragedies

(

and historical plays. 2. Humanism. The love for mankind is seen in every play. 3. Freedom for the individual. 4. The idea of patriotism. 5. National unity under one strong king. The last two themes are stressed in King Lear. 6. Social relations between people. 7. The masses as a political force.

8. The themes of love and friendship which are developed in his sonnets as well as in his plays.

9.The struggle against cruel medieval blood-feuds (in Romeo and Juliet).

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Shakespeare achieved great skill in speech individualization of his characters through the choice of words, and the use of folk­lore — popular songs, ballads and sayings. That is why the plays are written in the living language of the epoch.

There are some phrases that have become part of the every­day language of Englishmen. They have become sayings:

♦ All's well that ends well.

♦ All that glisters is not gold.

♦ A sea of troubles.

♦ Brevity is the soul of wit.

♦ To be or not to be, that is the question.

♦ Conscience doth¹ make cowards of us all.

♦ Love's labour's (is) lost.

♦ Much ado about nothing.

♦ There is no darkness but ignorance.

♦ ...best men are moulded out of faults.

Shakespeare's ideas of love, freedom, humanism and national unity are still very popular. Shakespeare is far from us only in time. When he speaks in his plays, we feel that he speaks for us and to us. His plays are staged by all the world's theatres and in Russia as well. Fourteen operas were composed on the theme of Romeo and Juliet. Verdi, Rossini, Berlioz wrote-operas on Othello and Macbeth. There are many symphonic works — Tchaikovsky's Tempest, Liszt's Ham­let. The whole world knows Prokofiev's beautiful ballet music to Romeo and Juliet. Shastokovich composed beautiful music to the sonnets. Almost all Shakespeare's comedies and tragedies have ap­peared in the cinema. One of the best productions is Hamlet.

Questions and Tasks

1. Why have Shakespeare's plays become so popular in the world?

2. What characters did Shakespeare create?

3. What central themes did he deal with in his plays?

4. How did Shakespeare achieve great skill in speech individualization of his characters?

5. Talk about the language of Shakespeare's plays.

6. Name the most important phrases which have become part of the every­day language of Englishmen.

7. Prove that Shakespeare's plays are very popular.

8. Comment on Shakespeare's contribution to world literature.

Vocabulary

brevity ['breviti] n краткость                   glister ['glista] v блестеть

conscience ['krjnjans] n совесть            ignorance ['ignarens] n невежество

coward ['kauad] n трус                            mould [msuld] v создавать

depth ['depG] n глубина                        phrase [freiz] л фраза

fault [fo:lt] n вина                                     variety [va'rawti] n разнообразие

¹ doth [d\9] — doe;

82

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км , щ$щ\ pffw - iwffww

____ LITERATURES

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_______ PHILOSOPHI

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English Literature in the 1/th—18th Centuries

ENLIGHTENMENT

The 17th century was one, of the most stormy periods of English history. The political situation in the country was complicated. The growing contradictions between the new class, the bourgeoisie, and the old forces of feudalism brought about the English Bour­geois Revolution in the 1640s. As a result of the revolution, the king was dethroned and beheaded and England was proclaimed a re­public. Though very soon monarchy was restored, the position of the bourgeoisie had changed.

The 18th century saw Great Britain rapidly growing into a capi­talist country. It was an age of intensive industrial development. New machinery was invented that turned Britain into the first capitalist power of the¹ world. The 18th century was also remarkable for the development of science and culture. It was in this period that Eng­lish painting began to develop too.

In spite of the progress of industry and culture in England the majority of :he English people were still very ignorant. That is

Enlightenment

why one of the most important problems that faced the country was the problem of education.

The 17th and 18th centuries are known in the history of Europe­an culture as the period of Enlightenment. The Enlightenment de­fended the interest of the common people — craftsmen, tradesmen, peasants. The central problem of the Enlightenment ideology was that of man and his nature.

The Enlighteners believed in reason as well as in man's inborn goodness. Vice in people, they thought, was due to the miserable living conditions which could be changed by force of reason. They considered it their duty to enlighten people, to help them see the roots of evil. The Enlighteners also believed in the power­ful educational value of art.

The English Enlighteners were not unanimous in their views. Some of them spoke in defence of the existing order, considering

 

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that a few reforms were enough to improve it. These were: Daniel Defoe ['deenjal da'fau], Alexander Pope [,aelig'zamda рэир] and Samuel Richardson1 ['ssemjusl ' rrtjadsn]. The other group included the writers who openly protested against the social order. They defended the interests of the ex­ploited masses. They were: Jonathan Swift [' йуопэвэп swift], Henry Fielding2 ['henn Ti:ldin]r Oliver Goldsmith3 ['nlrva 'gsuldsmiG], Richard Sheridan4 [ 'ntjbd 'Jendn], Robert Burns [ 'robat 'Ьэ:пг].

1. Talk about the political situation in England in the 17th century. 2. Describe the situation in Great Britain in the 18th century. 3. Talk about the Enlightenment and its main problem. 4. Who were the two groups among the English Enlighteners? 5. Mention the most outstanding representatives of the Enlightenment.

1 Samuel Richardson (1689- 1761) — Самюэл Ричардсон, англ. писатель. 2 Henry Fielding (1707 - 1754) — Генри Филдинг, англ. писатель, драматург. 3Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1774) — Оливер Голдсмит, англ. писатель, драма­ тург. 4 Richard Sheridan (1751 - 1816) — Ричард Шеридан, англ. драматург

Vocabulary

complicated ['komphkeitid] a сложный contradiction [,krmtra'dikf3n] n проти­воречие craftsman fkraftsman] n ремесленник dethrone [df Oram] v свергать с престола enlighten [m'laitn] v просвещать enlightener [m'laitns] n просветитель enlightenment [m'laitnmsnt]n просве­щение ideology [,aidi'rjl3d3i] n идеология, ми­ровоззрение

Questions and Tasks

inborn ['m'bo:n] а врожденный intensive [m'tensiv] а интенсивный majority [тэ'фопи] п большинство miserable ['mizsrablja несчастный proclaim [ргэ'Ыеип] v провозглашать restore [ns'ta] v восстанавливать stormy fsto:mi] а бурный unanimous [ju:'nsenimas] а единодуш­ный

Alexander Po (1688-1744)

Alexander Pope [.aelig'zcmda'paup] was born in London in 1688. His father, a prosperous linen-draper, was a ca­tholic, and because of his religion Pope was expelled from the public schools and universities. He picked up most of his knowledge from books, and though he read much he never be­came an accurate scholar.

Alexander Pope

Pope's poetic career began with Four Pastorals published in 1709. These were short poems on spring, summer, autumn and winter, closely fashioned on Virgil¹. His Essay on Criti­ cism contained Pope's aesthetic views.

A mock-heroic poem The Rape of the Lock which appeared in 1712 enjoyed instant success. It was founded on an incident which occurred at that time. A certain Lord Petre cut a lock of hair from the head of young beauty named Arabella Fermor (the Belinda of the poem). This practical joke led to a quarrel between the two families. Pope seized on the occasion and wrote a long poem in which the society is pictured in detail and satirized with great wit.

Pope's next work was the translation of the Illiad, which brought his fame and established financial positions. Pope trans­lated Homer² in the elegant artificial language of his own age jand gave the reading public what it wanted — a readable ver­sion of the Greek poem in accordance with the taste of time.

After the Illiad Pope translated the Odyssey ['odisi]. After the publication of his Homer, as the two poems are together popularly called, Pope wrote satiric poetry. In 1728 he published a long

¹ Virgil [ 'V3:d3il] (70- 19 до н. э.) — Вергилий, рим. поэт

² Homer [ 'пэитэ] (9 в. до н. э.) — Гомер, греч. поэт.

 

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satire on the "dunces" — the bad poets — called The Dunciad. In The Dunciad Pope ridiculed his literary opponents. The theme of the poem is the most important theme of the Enlightenment — the fight of the reason against ignorance and barbarity. It is the fiercest and the finest of Pope's satires.

One of the best known and most quoted of his works is The Essay on Man. The purpose of the essay is to justify the existing state of things.

In his Moral Essays and Essays on Criticism Pope expressed simi­lar views. Yet he was not blind to the vices of bourgeois society, which

he often criticized.

Pope expressed his ideas in wonderfully quotable verse. After Shakespeare he is the most quoted of English poets.

These and many other quotations from Pope have found their way into common speech:

♦ "A little learning is a dangerous thing."

♦ "And fools rush in, where angels fear to tread."

♦ "The proper study of mankind is man."

♦ "To err is human, to forgive divine."

In his lifetime Pope was immensely popular. Many foreign writers as well as the majority of English poets, looked to him as their model. But later at the end of the 18th century young ro­mantic poets, especially Wordsworth¹ and Coleridge² criticized Pope's poetry for its rationalism and lack of imagination.

Vocabulary

aesthetic [i:s'0etik] о эстетический         fashion ['fsejbn] п придавать вид

angel ['emcfeal] n ангел  *.                  instant ['instant] а немедленный

artificial [^oiti'fifol] а искусственный      justify [' tfeAstrfai] v оправдывать

barbarity [bcu'bsenti] n жестокость         lack [laek] n отсутствие

divine [di'vam] а божественный            lock [Ink] n локон

dunce [cUns] n тупица                            mock-heroic ['токгн'гтдк] а героикоми-

err [з:] v ошибаться                                         ческий

expel [iks'pel] v исключать                     occasion [э'кегзэп] л случай

² Wordsworth [ 'W3:dzw3:9], William (1770— 1850) —Уильям Вордсворт, англ. поэт-романтик «озерной школы».

³ Coleridge [ 'кэгЛпаз], Samuel Taylor (1772-1834) — Сэмюэл Тэйлор Кол-ридж, англ. поэт-романтик «озерной школы».

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quotation [kwsu'taijan] л цитата quote [kwsut] v цитировать similar ['simita] о похожий

occur [э'кз:] v происходить proper ['ргорэ] о надлежащий, должный quotable ['kwoutabl] о пригодный для цитирования

Questions and Tasks

! 1. Where was Alexander Pope born?

2. Why was he expelled from the public schools and universities?

3. How did he pick up most of his knowledge?

4. What work did his poetic career begin with?

5. Characterize Pope's main works.

6. What quotations from Pope do you know?

Daniel Defoe (1661-1731)

Daniel Defoe [ 'daenjd da'fau] is re­garded as the founder of realistic novel in English and European literature.

Daniel Defoe's life was complicated and adventurous. He was the son of a wealthy London butcher and received a good education. His father, being a puritan, wanted his son to become a priest. He preferred, however, the life of a merchant. He travelled in Spain, Germany, France and Italy on busi­ness. He spoke half a dozen languages

! and was a man of wide learning. From

Daniel Defoe

. 1694 Defoe took an active part in pub­lic affairs. His energy enabled him to combine the life of a man of action with that of a writer. He was the earliest literary journalist in England. He wrote political pamphlets

[on any subject and every event. He was a man of an active and original mind, an independent and courageous thinker who dealt

i with social questions.

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persecute ['p3:sikju:t] v преследовать pillory ['pibn] n позорный столб protestant ['protistsnt] n протестант puritan ['pjuantmi] n пуританин regard [n'ga:d] v рассматривать savings-bank ['servirjz'baenk) n сбере гательный банк sentence ['sentsnsj n приговор series ['sisri'.z] n ряд sphere ['sfis] n сфера support [ss'pol] n поддержка thinker 1'6ц)кэ] п мыслитель

In his interesting Essay on Projects (1698) Daniel Defoe sug­gested all kinds of reforms in different spheres of social life: to establish savings-banks, to construct railways, to give higher ed­ucation to women, to protect seamen etc.

In 1702 Defoe published a satirical pamphlet written in support of the protestants, or dissenters persecuted by the government and the Church. In the pamphlet The Shortest Way Mrith the Dissenters he defended the freedom of religious belief. He was punished for this and had to stand for three days in the pillory. The pillory sen­tence turned to his triumph. People brought him flowers and sang his Hymn to the Pillory (1703) in which he criticized the law.

After producing political pamphlets Defoe turned to writing novels. He came to it when he was nearly sixty. His first book of fiction was Robinson Crusoe [ 'robmsn 'km:sau] (1719). Its success encouraged Defoe. There followed a series of other novels: Captain Singleton [ 'kaeptin'sinltan] (1720), Moll Flanders ['nrol 'flcundaz] (1722),Coione7Jacqrue['k3:nl 'd3eik] (1722) andRoxana [rok'saem) (1724). Daniel Defoe died in London in 1731 in poverty.

He left behind him more than three hundred published works, and the reputation of being the "First English Journalist".

Also, with his imaginative account of the adventures of Robin­son Crusoe, he has become regarded as the forerunner of the great English novelists.

Vocabulary

account [a'kaunt] n рассказ butcher ['butjb] n торговец мясом combine [ksm'bam] v сочетать courageous [ks'reidjas] n смелый dissenter [di'senta] n сектант enable [1'neibl] v давать возможность essay ['esei] n очерк forerunner [fb.'r/Ana] n предшественник imaginative [f maecfemgtrv] а яркий independent [,mdi'pendant] а незави­симый pamphlet ['paemflit] n памфлет

Robinson Crusoe

Robinson Crusoe is the story of an Englishman who travels abroad. He is trying to increase his wealth by trade. He is born in a well-to-do family and receives a good education. His father wants him to be­come a lawyer, but Robinson "would be satisfied with nothing but going to sea". He runs away from home, and his adventures begin: he is shipwrecked several times, escapes out of slavery, works with great success on his plantation in Brazil until on his way to Guinea [' gmi] for Negro slaves he is shipwrecked and finds himself on a desert island.

Robinson settles there and carries money and a lot of various goods from the wreck to the island. He learns to tame wild goats, grow corn and make bread. One day he saves a man from cannibals and calls him Friday. Friday turns out to be a clever man. He learns English and becomes a devoted servant and companion to his master. After many years Robinson and Friday help the captain of an English ship to defeat the crew who wants to leave their captain on the desert island. The ship takes Robinson to England.

The novel was suggested to Defoe by the story of Alexander Sel­kirk [' selk3:k], a Scotch sailor. He had left England for a voyage to the Southern Seas in 1704. The ship was not seaworthy, and Selkirk who had quarrelled with his captain insisted on going ashore. He was put ashore on a desert island where he lived quite alone for 5 years.

In 1709 he was picked up by a passing vessel.

Defoe's hero, Robinson Crusoe, spends 28 years on a desert island, and the most famous part of the book concerns this time in his life. Robinson is both an individual outside society and a typical businessman. He makes use of the equipment which he takes from the ship: tools, pistols, money and other things. His behaviour is practical. He builds a house and fortifies it, he cul­tivates the ground, he tames animals. His religion is also busi­ness like: God helps those who help themselves.

Alone and defenceless Crusoe tried to be reasonable in order to master his despondency (loss of hope and courage).

He knew that he must not give way to self-pity or fear, or to lose himself in mourning for his lost companions.

Robinson Crusoe's most characteristic trait is his optimism. His guiding principle in life became "never say die". Sometimes of

 

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course, especially during earthquakes or when he was ill, panic and anxiety overtook him, but never for long. He had confidence in himself and in man and believed it was within the power of man to overcome all difficulties and hardships.

Another of Crusoe's good qualities which saved him from de­spair was his ability to put his whole heart¹ into everything he did. He was an enthusiastic worker and always hoped for the best.

The other central character of the book is Friday. Defoe makes the reader sympathize with Friday. Friday is intelligent, brave, generous, and skilful. He performs all tasks well.

It is to Defoe's credit that he portrays the Negro as an able, pleas­ant human being at a time when coloured people were treated very

badly.

The second part of the book shows Robinson Crusoe as an old man who is still fond of the sea. He sets on a new series of adven­tures. He visits his island, China, Siberia and other places and returns home at the age of 72.

The novel glorifies energy and practicalness. It is a praise to human labour and the triumph of man over nature. The book is still considered one of the masterpieces of English prose. It is read by both children and grown-ups throughout the world.

Vocabulary

 

shipwreck ['Jiprek] v потерпеть корабле­крушение solitaire [^scli'tea] n отшельник state [steit] n состояние; v определять sympathize fsimpaBaiz] v одобрительно относиться tame [teim] v приручать trait [trei] n черта, особенность violence ['vaisbns] n ярость within [wi'6m] n в пределах wreck [rek] n обломки корабля

master ['maists] v справляться

mourn [тэ:п] v оплакивать

praise [preiz] n хвала

quality ['kwohti] n качество

reasonable ['itzsnsbl] а благоразумный

reduce [n'dju:s] v доводить

seaworthy fsi:w3:di] а годный для пла­вания

self-pity fself'piti] n жалость к самому себе

separate ['separeit] v отделять

Questions and Tasks

1. Relate briefly the story of Defoe's life.

2. Speak on Defoe's pamphlets. What themes did he touch upon in his articles and pamphlets?

3. What novels did Defoe write?

4. Discuss Robinson Crusoe according to the following plan:

 

a) the origin of the plot;

b) Crusoe — the main character of the book;

c) the educational value of the novel.

5. What characterizes Defoe as an Enlightener?

■' 7. Say something about Friday, the other central character of the book.

8. What do you know about the second part of the book?

9. What does the novel glorify?

 

able ['eibl] a способный afford [3'fo:d] v предоставлять anxiety [aerjg'zaiati] n тревога, беспо­койство banish ['bsenifj v изгонять cannibal ['ksembsl] n людоед cast [ka:st] v выбрасывать confidence ['krjnfidsns] n доверие credit J'kredit] n заслуга creditor ['kredits] n кредитор crew [kra:] n команда cultivate ['kvltiveit] v обрабатывать debtor ['deta] n должник

deliver [ds'liva] v избавить desolate ['desaht] а необитаемый despair [dis'pea] n отчаяние despondency [dis'ptmdsnsi] л упадок

духа earthquake ['a:0kweik] n землетрясение enable [i'neibl] а возможность equipment [f kwipmsnt] n принадлеж­ности fortify ['fo:tifai] v укреплять glorify ['glonfai] v прославлять guiding ['gaidin] о руководящий Guinea ['gmi] n Гвинея

Jonathan Swift (1667-1745)

The greatest of the prose satirists of the age of the Enlightenment was Jonathan Swift ['изгтэбэп 'swift]. His bitter satire.was aimed at the policy of the English bourgeoisie towards Ireland. That's why Irish people considered Swift their champion in the struggle for the welfare and freedom of their country.

Jonathan Swift was born in Dublin, but he came from an Eng­lish family. His father died before he was born. The boy saw little of his mother's care: she had to go back to her native town.

to put his whole heart — полностью отдаваться

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He was supported by his uncle and from his very boyhood he learned how miserable it was to be depended on the charity of relatives. He was edu­cated at Kilkenny school and Dublin University, Trinity College, to become a clergyman. At school he was fond of history, literature and languages.

After graduating from the college he went to London and became pri­vate secretary to Sir William Tem­ple who was a retired statesman and writer. Jonathan Swift improved his education at Sir William's library and in 1692 he took his Master of Arts degree¹ at Oxford. He got a place of vicar in Ireland and worked there for a year and a half. He wrote much and burned most of what he wrote. Soon he grew tired of the lonely life in Ireland and was glad to accept Sir William Temple's proposal for his return to him. Swift lived and worked there until Temple's death in 1699.

The satire The Battle of the Books (1697) marked the begin­ning of Swift's literary career. It depicts a war between books of modern and ancient authors. The book is an allegory and reflects the literary discussion of the time.

Swift's first success was A Tale of a Tub (1704), a biting satire on religion. In the introduction to A Tale of a Tub the author tells of a curious custom of seamen. When a ship is attacked by a whale the seamen throw an empty tub into the sea to distract the whale's at­tention. The meaning of the allegory was quite clear to the readers of that time. The tub was religion which the state (for a ship has always been the emblem of a state) threw to its people to distract them from any struggle.

The satire is written in the form of a story about three brothers symbolizing the three main religions in England: Peter (the Catholic

¹ Master of Arts degree — степень магистра гуманитарных наук 94

Church), Martin (the Anglican Church) and Jack (puritanism). It carries such ruthless attacks on religions that even now it remains one of the books, forbidden by the Pope of Rome.

In 1713 Swift was made Dean of St Patric's Cathedral in Dub­lin. Living in Dublin Swift became actively involved in the strug­gle of the Irish people for their rights and interests against Eng­lish op_p_ression_ and poetry.

Swift's literary work was also closely connected with his po­litical activity. In the numerous political pamphlets Swift ridi­culed different spheres of life of bourgeois society: law, wars, politics etc.

In 1726 Swift's masterpiece Gulliver's Travels appeared. All Swift's inventive genius and savage satire were at their best in this work. This novel brought him fame and immorality. Swift died on the 19th of October, 1745, in Dublin.

Vocabulary

oppression [э'рге/эп] л угнетение proposal [ргэ'рзигэ1] п предложение retired [n'taisd] о удалившийся от дел ridicule ['ndikju:l] v высмеивать ruthless ['ru:91is] а безжалостный savage ['saevicfe] а жестокий symbolize [ 'simbalaiz] v изображать символически tub [Ub] n бочка vicar ['vikaj n приходский священник welfare ['welfea] n благосостояние

charity ['tfaenti] n благотворительность;

милосердие dean [di:n] n настоятель собора distract [dis'traekt] v отвлекать forbid [fs'bid] v (forbade; forbidden)

запрещать forbidden [fa'bidn] p. p. от forbid introduction I intra d\kjbn] n предисловие inventive [m'ventrv] о изобретательный involve [m'vrjlv] v вовлекать miserable ['тггэгэЫ] а печальный

Gulliver's Travels

Swift's novel Gulliver's Travels [ 'gAlrvaz 'traevalz] made him one of the greatest English prose writers of the 18th century.

It has been translated into many languages. It is popular as a :hildren's book, but it was meant for adults.

In the book Swift attacks his contemporary world and the social md political system of England.

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The book describes the adventures of Lemuel Gulliver, a ship's surgeon. It has four parts: Gulliver's voyages to 1) Lilliput ['Ыгрлг], 2) Brobdingnag [ 'brobdinnseg], 3) Laputa [b'pjuita], 4) the country of the Houyhnhnms ['huihnamz] and Yahoos [ja'huiz].

Gulliver

Originally the novel was to be the story of an imaginary world voyage by a certain Martin Scriblerus. Swift began to work on it in 1711 but it was not published till 1726, and in the interval the hero had changed his name to Lemuel Gulliver. He was not a ship's surgeon, but a farmer. People called him Big Doughty [' dauti] as he was of colossal size and had the strength of a Hercules f h3:kjuli:z]. Swift made his acquaintance in Ireland, in the country of Cavan, where the writer used to pass his summer holidays. Big Doughty loved to show off his skill. Once he rescued a fellow-farmer from the persecution of a tax-collector by hiding him under the skirts of his overcoat. On another occasion he lifted a poor widow's cow

out of pound where it had been imprisoned for straying and delivered it safely to its mistress. The highlight of this show of strength was to carry a horse from one field to another across the fence. This impressed Swift tremendously. That is how Gulliver originated.

On the first voyage Gulliver is shipwrecked and finds himself in Lilliput. To his surprise, people are only "six inches high" there but they have the same vices and faults as the English ^shallow interests, corrupted laws and evil customs. Their two struggling parties, the Big-Endians and Little-Endians, distinguish themselves only by the high and low heels on their shoes. They drive the country into war over the question of whether an egg should be broken on its big or its little end. The statesmen obtain posts by dancing on a tight rope. Whoever jumps the highest before the king gets the highest post. In this Swift satirizes the English court and aristocracy. Swift hated the English state system and looked for a better one. He believed in an ideal enlightened monarch. Gulliver meets such a king on his second voyage to Brobdingnag.

This is a country where giants live. Gulliver appears as ridiculous to these people of enormous size as the Lilliputians [.luTpjuijjanz] seemed to him. The country of the giants is governed by common sense, reason and justice which is not the case in England. But even a clever king cannot do much for his people.

When Gulliver's box is carried off by an eagle and dropped into the sea he is rescued by an English ship. It takes Gulliver a long time to get used to the littleness of the houses, trees and the people once back in England. As far as the people are concerned it is their moral littleness that surprises Gulliver.

In the third part the author takes Gulliver to Laputa and the Academy in Lagado. In this part Swift laughs at every kind of impractical science and philosophy. The Laputans [1э 'pjuitanz] had ill-built houses without one right angle.

They are odd, clumsy and unhandy people in their common actions and behaviour. Laputa is a flying island. It may be put in a position that it can take away the lands underneath "of the benefit of the sun and the rain and afflict the inhabitants with death and diseases". The flying island helps the king to exploit his people.

₉₇

corrupt [ka'rApt] v искажать disgust [dis'gASt] v внушать отвращение enlighten [m'laitsn] v просвещать enormous [I'noimas] а огромный enviousi ['enviss] а завистливый fence ['fens] n забор

In the description of the Academy Swift satirizes all kinds of inventors for their attempts to improve everything. They want to extract sunbeams from cucumbers, to soften marble for pillows, to simplify the language by abolishing words, etc. The Academy of Lagado is Swift's parody on projectors whose "science" has nothing to do with real life.

It is in Book IV that Swift's satire is the bitterest. Gulliver finds him­self in a land ruled by Houyhnhnms, intelligent and virtuous horses who are ignorant of such vices as stealing, lying, love of money. The rest of the population is made up of Yahoos, ugly creatures that look like human beings in appearance and possess all the human vices. They are greedy, envious and malicious. Gulliver admires the simple modest way of life of the Houyhnhnms and is disgusted with the Ya­hoos who remind him so much of his countrymen that he hates.

Swift used his favourite weapon — laughter — to mock at bourgeois reality. He criticized it and his criticism was hidden away in a whole lot of allegorical pictures.

Thackeray, an outstanding English writer, described Jonathan Swift: "As fierce a beak and talon as ever stuck, as strong a wing as ever beat, belonged to Swift"¹.

Swift's art had a great effect on the further development of English and European literature.

Swift's democratic ideas expressed in the book had a great influence on the English writers who came after Swift.

Vocabulary

abolish [a'bnhj] v уничтожать

afflict [s'flikt] v сокрушать

angle ['aerjgl] n угол

beak [bi:k] л клюв

benefit ['benaftt] n польза, благо

clumsy ['cUmzi] а неуклюжий

' ("Свифт обладал самым сильным клювом и когтями, какие когда-либо на­носили удар, самыми сильными крыльями, которые когда-либо рассекали воздух," — так Теккерей образно охарактеризовал обличительную силу произведений Свифта).

 

shallow ['Jsebu] а мелкий simplify ['simphfai] vупрощать stray [strei] v заблудиться sunbeam ['sAnbi:m] n солнечный луч stick [stik] v (stuck) втыкать,вонзать surgeon ['s3:cfc3n] n хирург talon ['taetan] n коготь tax-collector [ 'taekska lekta] n сбор­щик налогов tight [tait] а туго-натянутый tremendously [tn'mendasli] adv очень, чрезвычайно unhandy [лгГпэегки] а неловкий virtuous ['v3:tjras] а добродетельный

heel [hi:l] л каблук lying ['laiirj] n лживость malicious [ms'lifas] а злой obtain [ab'tem] v получать odd [cd] а странный originally [s'ndjnali] adv первоначально originate [s'rKfcmeit] v создавать parody ['paeradi] n пародия persecution [,p3:si'kju:Jan] n преследо­вание pillow ['pilau] n подушка pound [paund] n загон для скота projector [pra'djjekta] n проектировщик rescue ['reskju:] v спасать

Questions and Tasks

1. Where was Jonathan Swift born?

2. Where did he get his education?

 

3. Speak about his first notable work The Battle of the Books.

4. What biting satire was Swift's first success?

5. Speak on the pamphlets written in defence of Ireland.

6. When did Swift's masterpiece Gulliver's Travels appear?

7. How many parts does the novel Gulliver's Travels consist of?

8. What did Swift mock at in the part devoted to Lilliputs?

9. Speak on Swift's world outlook as shown in the second part of the book.

 

10. What did Swift ridicule in Gulliver's third travel?

11. Comment on Swift's attitude to science. What kind of science does he criticize?

12. Speak on the meaning on the last part of the book.

13. What did Thackeray say about Jonathan Swift?

14. What is the origin of the novel Gulliver's Travels?

Robert Burns (1759-1796)

The greatest poet of the 17th century was Robert Burns [' robat 'b3:nz]. His popularity in Scotland is very great. The Scottish bard was born in a clay cottage in the village of Alloway [ ' aelawei]. His father was a poor farmer, but a man who valued knowledge. It was from his father that Robert received his learning and his love for books. His mother had a beautiful voice and taught Robert

 

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old Scottish songs and ballads which he later turned into his best poems.

Robert Burns

Robert Burns had no regular schooling. But when Robert was seven, his father en­gaged a teacher to educate him and his broth­er Gilbert. John Murdoch [' ni3:dt>k], an eigh­teen year-old scholar, was a very enthusias­tic teacher. He taught Robert, who was his favourite, many subjects, French and litera­ture among them. However, Robert could not afford much time for his studies. His fa­ther wanted to try his hand at farming and Robert had to help him on the farm. At the age of thirteen he had to take over from his father most of the work on the farm as his father was growing old.

Those were hard times for Robert, and he had to leave school. Nearly all life Robert Burns worked on his small piece of land. At fifteen he did most of the work on the farm, his father's health being very poor. And as Bums followed the plough he whistled and sang. He made up his own words to the old folk tunes of Scotland that he knew so well. In his songs he spoke of what he saw—of the woods and fields and valleys, of the deer and the skylark and the small field-mouse, of the farmer's poor cottage.

Burns wrote his first verses when he was fifteen. Very soon his poems became popular among his friends and acquaintances. In 1785 he met a girl, who became the great love of all his life and inspirer of his numerous lyrical verses. Jean had a wonderful voice and knew a lot of old melodies to which Burns composed his songs.

In 1786 Bums published his first book under the title of Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect. The book was a great success. He was invited to Edinburgh. He conquered the Edinburgh society by his wit and manners as much as by poetry. In Edinburgh he was often advised to write in standard English on noble themes, but he refused. He wanted to write poetry about the people and for the people. While in Edinburgh Burns got acquainted with some en­thusiasts of Scottish songs and ballads and became engaged in collecting the treasures of the Scottish folklore. He travelled about

 

Burn's Cottage in Ayrshire

Scotland collecting popular songs. After his father's death he did not give up farming and worked hard to earn his living. In 1791 Burns got the post of excise officer and moved to Dumfries [dAm 'fits]. The last years of his life were very hard. The hard daily work on the farm, the constant starvation and privations finally undermined Burns's health. On July 21, 1796, at the age of 37, Bums died. His body rests in a Mau­soleum in Dumfries. The house in

Alloway, where he was born, has now been restored. Every year thousands of people from all over the world come there to pay hom­age to the great poet.

Vocabulary

mausoleum [^moiss'lrsm] n мавзолей plough [plan] n плуг privation [prai'veijan] n лишение restore [ns'to:] v реставрировать skylark ['skaila:k] n жаворонок undermine ['лгкЬтат] v подорвать whistle ['wisl] v насвистывать

afford [a'fo:d] v позволить себе clay [klei] n глина engage [in'geidy v нанимать enthusiastic [m,9ju:zf sestik] а полный

энтузиазма excise [ek'sais] л акцизный сбор

excise officer акцизный чиновник homage f ггшгкй п почтение, уважение

to pay homage воздавать должное

Questions and Tasks

1. Where was Robert Bums bom?

2. What can you say about his mother and father?

3. Where was he educated?

4. Why couldn't he afford much time for his studies?

5. Why did he have to leave school?

6. How did Bums make up his songs?

7. When did he write the first verses?

8. Who was his inspirer of the numerous lyrical verses?

 

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9. What was the title of his first book?

10. Where was Burns invited?

11. How was he met by the Edinburgh society?

12. When did Burns get the post of excise officer in Dumfries?

13. When did he die?

14. Where does his body rest?

15. Relate the main facts of Burn's life.

Burns's Literary Work

Robert Burns's poetry was inspired by his deep love for his moth­erland, for its history and folklore. His beautiful poem My Heart's in the Highlands, full of vivid colourful descriptions, is a hymn to the beauty of Scotland's nature and to its glorious past. He admires the green valleys, "mountains high cover'd with snow, and wild hanging woods". He calls his country: "The birthplace of valour, the country of worth."

My Heart's in the Highlands

My heart's in the Highlands, my heart is not here, My heart's in the Highlands a-chasing the deer, A-chasing the wild deer and following the roe — My heart's in the Highlands, wherever I go!

Farewell to the Highlands, farewell to the North, The birthplace of valour, the country of worth! Wherever I wander, wherever I rove, The hills of the Highlands for ever I love.

My heart's in the Highlands, etc.

Farewell to the mountains high cover'd with snow, Farewell to the straths and green valleys below, Farewell to the forests and wild-hanging woods, Farewell to the torrents and loud — pouring floods!

My heart's in the Highlands, etc.

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Adieu for a while, I can never forget thee,¹ The land of my fathers, the soil of the free, I sigh for the hour that shall bid me retrace The path of my childhood, my own native place.

My heart's in the Highlands, etc.

In Burns's poems nature forms a part of people's life, though he does not personify it.

Burns is inspired by deep love for Scotland, its history and folklore. Address to Edinburgh is a hymn to the common Scottish people:

The sons, Edina², social, kind, With open arms the strangers hail; Their views enlarg'd their lib'ral³ mind. Above the narrow rural vale; Attentive still to sorrow's wail, Or modest merit's silent claim: And never may their sources fail! And never envy blot their name!"

Burns's poetry is closely connected with the national struggle of the Scottish people for their liberation from English oppression, the struggle that had been going on in Scotland for many centuries. His favourite national hero is William Wallace [' wdIis] (1270 — 1305), the leader of the uprising against the English oppressors. The Scottish people led by Wallace and Robert Bruce (1274- 1329), King of Scot­land, overthrew the English army in the battle at Bannockburn in 1314 and secured Scottish independence.

Bruce at Bannockburn is one of the best poem by Burns. It is the poet's call to his people to keep up the freedom-loving spirit of their fathers.

Scots, who have with Wallace bled, Scots, whom Bruce has often led,

¹ thee — you

² Edina — Endinburgh

³ enlarg'd... lib'ral — enlarged... liberal

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Welcome to your gory bed, Or to victory!

By oppression's woes and pains! By your sons in servile chains! We will drain our dearest veins, But they shall be free!

Lay the proud usurpers low! Tyrants fall in every foe! Liberty's in every blow! — Let us do, or die!

Robert Bums is a true son of the Scottish peasantry. His poems express their thoughts and hopes, their human dignity, and their love of freedom and hatred for all oppressors. In his poem A Man's A Man ForA'That Burns says that it is not wealth and titles, but the excellent qualities of man's heart that make "a man for a' that".

The poet praises the healthy, happy, wise Scottish peasant, who in his shabby clothes is worth a score of lords, however fine.

A Man's A Man ForA'That

Is there for honest Poverty That hangs his head, and all that: The Coward slave, we pass him by, We dare be poor for all that! For all that, and all that, Our toil's obscure and all that; The rank is but the guinea-stamp. The Man's the gold for all that.

Then let us pray that come it may — (As come it will for all that) — That Sense and Worth over all the Earth, Shall bear the gree¹, and all that.

gree — have the first place

For all that, and all that. It's coming yet for all that, That man to man, the world over, Shall brothers be for all that!

Titles and riches are not enough to make people happy.

Many verses of the poet were inspired by the French Revolution which he supported with all his heart.

• In his poem The Tree of Liberty Burns praised the French revolutionaries who planted "The Tree of Liberty" in their country. In this poem Bums expresses his belief that the time will come when all people will be equal and happy.

Like brothers in a common cause We'd on each other smile, man; And equal rights and equal laws World gladden every isle, man.

In spite of his poverty, hunger and never-ceasing toil, Burns was an optimist. He enjoyed life as few of his contemporaries did. The poem John Barleycorn expresses Burns's optimism. It tells of the way people prepare whiskey. The poem is symbolic in its meaning. John Barleycorn personifies the strength of the common people which is immortal and cannot be done away with. Three kings wanted to kill John Barleycorn.

John Barleycorn

The were three kings into the east,

Three kings both great and high, And they had sworn a solemn oath

John Barleycorn should die.

They took a plough and ploughed him down,

Put clods upon his head, And they had sworn a solemn oath

John Barleycorn was dead.

But the cheerful spring came kindly on, And showers began to fall;

 

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John Barleycorn, got up again, And sore surpris'd them all.

However, all their efforts were in vain. John Barleycorn was not dead, as his joyful spirit was alive in those who had a chance "to taste his blood".

John Barleycorn was a hero bold,

Of noble enterprise, For if you do but taste his blood,

It will make your courage rise.

It will make a man forget his woe;

It will heighten all his joy: It will make the widow's heart to sing,

Though the tear were in her eye.

Then let us toast John Barleycorn,

Each man a glass in hand; And may his great posterity¹

Ne'er² fail in old Scotland.

Burns was a remarkable lyric poet. His lyrical poems are known for their beauty, truthfulness, freshness, depth of feelings and their lovely melody. Among his best lyrics is Oil, My Love is Like a Red, Red Rose.

О my Love's like a red, red rose That's newly sprung in June; О my Love's like the melody That's sweetly played in tune.

As fair art thou, my bonnie lass³, So deep in love am I; And I will love thee still, my dear, Till all the seas go dry.

Till all the seas go dry my dear, And the rocks melt with the sun; ОI will love thee still, my dear, While the sands of life shall run.

And fare thee well, my only Love! And fare thee well a while! And I will come again, my Love, Though it were ten thousand mile!

Many of Burns's lyrical poems have been put to music and are sung by all English-speaking people. One of them is Auld Lang Syne f o:kf ten' sain], a beautiful song of brotherhood and friendship.

Auld Lang Syne¹

Should auld² acquaintance be forgot,

And never brought to mind ?

Should auld acquaintance be forgot,

And days of lang syne!

Chorus

For auld lang syne, my dear,

For auld lang syne,

We'll take a cup of kindness yet

For auld lang syne!

We two have wandered in the brook From morning sun till dine³, But seas between us broad have roared Since auld lang syne.

And there's a hand, my trusty friend, And give us a hand of thine⁴; And we'll take a right hearty drink. For auld lang syne.

 

¹ posterity — future generation

² Ne'er — Never

³ bonnie lass — pretty girl

¹ Auld Lang Syne — the days of long ago

² auld — old

³ dine — dinner

⁴ thine — yours

 

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Burns's wit, humour, contempt for falsehood and hypocrisy are best revealed in his epigrams — short four line satirical verses in which he attacks lords, churchmen, persons of rank. The biting satire of his epigrams was greatly admired by the common people. Here are the three epigrams in which Robert Burns shows the ignorance of the nobility, the falsehood of the priests and his hatred of the rich.

Epigrams

.

The Book-Warms

Once Burns was invited by a nobleman to see his magnificent library. Observing a splendidly bound, but uncut and worm-eaten copy of Shakespeare on the table, the poet left the following lines in the volume:

Through and through the inspired leaves, Ye¹ maggots, make your windings; But, oh! respect his lordship's taste, And spare the golden bindings.

The Parson's Looks

Someone remarked that he had seen falsehood in the very look of a certain priest. The poet replied:

That there is falsehood in his looks I must and will deny; They say their master is a knave — And sure they do not lie.

Pinned to a Lady's Coach

The following lines were addressed to the coach of a very rich lady.

¹ ye — you

If you rattle along like your mistress's tongue, Your speed will outrival the dart; But a fly for your load, you'll break down on the road, If your stuff be as rotten's her heart.

The name of Burns is very dear to all English-speaking nations because the source of his poetry was the folklore and the songs of his people whose true son he was.

In our country Robert Burns is widely known, loved and sung. One of the best translators of Burns's poetry was Samuel Marshak who successfully preserved the music of the original Scottish dia­lect.

Burns's songs are the soul of music and it is not surprising that Beethoven fbeithauvn], Schumann, Mendelsohn, and others com­posed music to the poet's verses. Russian composers have also set many of Burns's verses to music. Among the best is the cycle of songs by Georgi Sviridov. Tunes to Burns's songs have been successfully written also by Dmitri Shostakovich, Nikolai Myaskovsky and others.

Burns's verses are a constant everliving source of inspiration for composers in all countries.

Now Robert Burns is considered the national poet of Scotland, and January 25 — the date of his birth — is always celebrated by Scotchmen.

Vocabulary

drain [drem] v осушать falsehood ['foMrud] n ложь farewell ['feswel] int прощай! foe [fau] n враг gory ['go:n] а покрытый кровью hail [heil] v приветствовать ignorance ['ignarens] n невежество immortal [i'mo:tl] а бессмертный inspire [m'spaia] v внушать knave [nerv] n мошенник maggot ['maegat] n личинка outrival [aut'rarval] v превзойти

adieu [a'dju:] int прощай!

bid [bid] v (bade; bidden) приказывать

bind [bamd] v (bound) переплетать

blot [bint] v бесчестить

bound [baund] past и р. р. от bind

brook [bruk] n ручей

cease [sis] v прекращать

claim [kleim] n требование

clod [kind] n глыба (земли)

contempt [кэп/tempt] n презрение

dart [da:t] n дротик

dignity ['digniti] л достоинство

 

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Questions and Tasks 1. What are the main themes of Burns's poetry? 2. What poem is a hymn to the beauty of Scotland's nature? 3. What poem is closely connected with the national struggle of the Scottish people for their liberation from English oppression? 4. What is the main idea of the poem Is There for Honest Poverty? 5. In what poem does Burns develop the revolutionary theme? 6. What is the idea of the poem John Barleycorn? 7. What are Burns's lyric poems? 8. Point out the similes used in the poem A Red, Red Rose. 9. Comment of Burns's epigrams.   10. Who was one of the best translators of Burns's poetry in Russia? 11. What composers set many of Burns's verses to music?

path [pa:0] п тропинка

personify [p3:'smiifai] v олицетворять

pin [pm] v прикрепить

posterity [pDSt'enti] n последующие по­коления

preserve [pn'z3:v] v сохранять

rattle ['rati] у трещать; грохотать

retrace [n'treis] v возвращаться

roe [гэи] n косуля

rotten [ 'rotn] а нравственно испор­ченный

rove [reuv] v скитаться

score [sko:] n два десятка

secure [si'kjua] v обеспечивать

servile ['s3:vail] а рабский

shabby ['Jaebi] а поношенный

sigh [sai] v тосковать soil [soil] n земля

solemn t'sobm] а торжественный source [sd:s] n источник strath [straeG] n широкая горная доли­на с протекающей по ней рекой swear [swes] v (swore; sworn) клясться toast [taust] v провозглашать тост toil [toil] n тяжелый труд torrent ['trjrent] n стремительный поток usurper [ju:'z3:p3] n захватчик vale [veil] n долина valour ['vaela] n доблесть wail [well] n вопль woe [wsu] n rope, скорбь worm [W3:m] n червь

English Literature in the Second Half of the 18th Century

|                    PRE-ROMANTICISM

Another trend in the English literature of the second half of the 18th century was the so-called pre-romanticism. It originat­ed among the conservative groups of men of letters' as a reaction against Enlightenment.

The mysterious element plays a great role in the works of pre-romanticists. One of pre-romanticists was William Blake (1757 — 1827), who in spite of his mysticism, wrote poems full of human feelings and sympathy for the oppressed people. Blake's effec­tiveness comes from the poetic "contrasts" and simple rhythms.

 

Vocabulary

conservative [kan's3:v3tiv] a консер­вативный

effectiveness [i 'fektrvnis] n эффектив­ность

metre ['mi:ta] n стих, размер mysticism ['mistisizm] л мистицизм originate [s'ncfemeit] v возникать rhythm ['пбэт] п ритм речи

 

¹ men of letters — писатели

Ш

William Blake (1757-1827)

William Blake was born in London into the family of trades people. The family was neither rich nor poor. Blake did not receive any formal education but he demonstrated good knowledge of English literature, particularly Mil­ton'. At the age of 14 he became an apprentice engraver, and is as well known for his engravings as for his po­etry.

William Blake

Blake has always been seen as a strange character, largely because of his childhood experience of seeing vi­sions.

He was a very religious man, but he rejected the established church, declaring that personal ex­perience, the inner-light, should direct and guide man.

William Blake had a veYy individual view of the world. His religious philosophy is seen through his works Songs of Inno­cence (1789), The Marriage of Heaven and Hell (1790) and Songs of Experience (1794). His poems are simple but symbolic. For example, in his poems The Tiger and The Lamb, the tiger is the symbol of mystery, the lamb — the symbol of innocence.

The Tyger is a mystical poem that, rather than describes a ti­ger, an animal that Blake had never seen, is a perception of the Universal Energy, a power beyond good and evil. In the poem the nature of universal energy becomes clear through a series of questions, which the reader is forced to answer. This makes the reader enter into the poem, becoming part of the poetic experience.

During the poem, the reader passes from a state of ignorance to a state of understanding. In this way the poem becomes an "expe­rience" for the reader as well as a picture of an experience felt by the poet.

From Songs of Experience The Tyger

Tyger! Tyger! burning bright In the forests of the night, What immortal hand or eye Could frame thy¹ fearful symmetry?

In what distant deeps or skies Burnt the fire of thine² eyes ? On what wings dare he aspire? What the hand dare seize the fire?

And what shoulder, and what art, Could twist the sinews of the heart? And when the heart began to beat, What dread hand? And what dread feet?

What the hammer? What the chain? In what furnace was they brain? What the anvil? What dread grasp Dave its deadly terrors clasp?

When the stars threw down their spears, And water'd heaven with their tears, Did he smile his work to see? Did he made the Lamb make thee?

 

¹ Milton John (1608 — 1674) — Джон Мильтон, англ. поэт и публицист. 112

¹      thy [6ai] — your

²      thine [6am] — your

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Tyger! Tyger! Burning bright In the forests of the night, What immortal¹ hand or eye Dare frame² thy fearful symmetry³ ?

Blake's later poems are very complex symbolic texts but his voice in the early 1790s is the conscience of the Romantic age. He shows a contrast between a world of nature and childhood inno­cence and a world of social control. Blake saw the dangers of an industrial society in which individuals were lost, and in his famous poem London he calls the systems of society "mind forged mana­cles" . For Blake, London is a city in which the mind of everyone is in chains and all individuals are imprisoned.

Even the River Thames has been given a royal charter (char­ter'd = given rights) so that it can be used for commerce and trade.

From Songs of Experience London

I wander thro'⁴ each charter'd street. Near where the charter'd Thames does flow, And mark⁵ ifl every face I meet Marks of weakness, marks of woe⁶.

In every cry of every Man, In every Infant's⁷ cry of fear, In every voice, every ban⁸ The mind forg'd manacles⁹1 hear.

¹ immortal — godlike

² frame — arrange; invent

³ symmetry — frightening balance or perfection

⁴ thro'[9ru:] — through

⁵ mark — notice

⁶ woe [wau] — sadness

⁷ Infant's — very small child's

⁸ ban — law to stop something

⁹ the mind forg'd manacles—chains around the hands, which are made in the brain

William Blake thought that childhood was the perfect peri­od of sensibility and experience, and he fought against injustic­es against children. In his poem The Chimney Sweeper he shows how the modern world, the world of chimney sweepers, corrupts and "dirties" children. Using the symbolic technique of a "dream", Blake presents a heavenly view of children who are clean, naked, innocent, and happy, and contrasts it with the reality of the sweep's life, which is dirty, cold, corrupted and unhappy.

The poem refers to the terrible social conditions of the sweep. These children were sold by their parents when they were very young. They got up early in the morning and worked all day in awful conditions, suffering from the cold. In Tom's dream, happi­ness and delight become reality. The poem is simple and senti­mental. Blake avoids in it the more complex aspects of his mystical symbols.

William Blake's poetry was not immediately recognized during his lifetime, because of its mysticism. His etchings were more im­mediately popular and, like his poetry, reflect his great power of imagination.

Vocabulary

innocence ['mgsns] n невинность manacle ['maenakl] n pi наручники naked ['neikid] а голый perception [ps'sepjbn] n способность восприятия sensibility Lsensi'biliti] л чувствитель­ность sinew ['smju:] n жила symbolic [sim'bohk] а символический technique [,tek'ni:k] n техника vision [,vi3sn] n видение

anvil ['senuil] n наковальня aspect ['aespekt] n сторона aspire [as'paia] v подниматься charter ['tfats] n право conscience ['krmfsns] n совесть corrupt [kg'rApt] о испорченный; /пор­тить, развращать dread [dred] а ужасный engraver [m'grerva] n гравер engraving [m'greivm] n гравюра etching ['etfrrj] n офорт forge ['fo:d3l v ковать

 

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Questions and Tasks

1. How was the trend in the English literature of the second half of the 18th

century called?

2 What is the reason of its origination^

3 Characterize the works of the pre-romanticists.

4 Tell the main facts of William Blake s lite. 5' Give a brief account of his literary career.

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