Distinctive and non-distinctive features of English consonants
Articulatory classification of speech sounds.
VOWELS
Classification:
according to the horizontal movement : front, front-retracted, mixed, back-advanced, back
according to the vertical movement:close(high), mid and open(low)+ narrow, broad(soviet)
to the position of the lips(rounded, spread or neutral): rounded(4) and unrounded.
to the degree of the muscular tension of the articulatory organs: tense and lax. All the long vowels are believed to be tense, while short vowels are lax.
to the force of articulation at the end of a vowel: free(long monophtongs, diphthongs, unstressed short vowels) and checked (stressed short vowels).
to the stability of articulation(stability/instability of oral resonator) : monophtongs and diphthongs(all falling, nucl.+glide), diphthongoids (i:, u:).
to the length(historical, not positional)long and short.
CONSONANTS
The most important constituent of a consonant is noise. The source of noise is in barier. 3 types of bariers: 1)complete occlusive, 2) constriction, 3)occlusion-constriction.
According to the type of barier and the manner of the production of noise: occlusive (plosives(6) and nasal sonants(3)), constrictives (fricatives(unicentral(6), bicentral(2)) and oral sonants(medial(3), lateral(l))), occlusive-constrictive(affricates).
According to the active speech organ which forms a barrier: labial (bilabial – p, b, m, w, labio-dental – v, f) , lingual (forelingual –apical(t, d, n, s, z), cacuminal(r), mediolingual – j, backlingual – k, g), pharingal (h).
According to the place of a barrier: dental(2), alveolar (t, d, n, l, s, z), post-alveolar(r) , palatal (j) , palato-alveolar (4) , velar(ng).
According to the presence or absence of voice: voiced ((8)b, d, g, v, z) and voiceless ((8)p, t, k, f, s, t).
According to the force of articulation: lenis(muscular tension is weak(voiced)) and fortis(strong(voiceless)).
According to the position of the soft palate: oral and nasal (m, n, ng).
3. The phoneme as a linguistic unit. Its definitions and functions.
The phoneme - the smallest linguistically relevant unit of the sound structure of a given language which serves to distinguish one word from another. The phoneme is a minimal abstract linguistic unit realized in speech in the form of speech sounds opposable to other phonemes of the same language to distinguish the meaning of morphemes and words. Limited number: 20 vowel, 24 cons. All speech sounds – allophones, those, which dist. words – phonemes. Phoneme is abstraction and generalization.
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Firstly, the phoneme is a functional unit. The opposition of phonemes in the same phonetic environment differentiates the meaning of morphemes and words: e.g. bath-path, light-like. Sometimes the opposition of phonemes serves to distinguish the meaning of the whole phrases: He was heard badly - He was hurt badly. Thus we may say that the phoneme can fulfill the distinctive function.
Secondly, the phoneme is material, real and objective. That means it is realized in speech in the form of speech sounds, its allophones. The phonemes constitute the material form of morphemes, so this function may be called constitutive function.
Thirdly, the phoneme performs the recognitive function, because the use of the right allophones and other phonetic units facilitates normal recognition. We may add that the phoneme is a material and objective unit as well as an abstract and generalized one at the same time.
Distinctive and non-distinctive features of English vowels
Vowels have two main characteristics: length and quality. Vowel quality is distinctive, regardless of the position of the vowel. Vowel length is dependent on the phonetic context, in particular on the following consonant. It is the so-called “positional length”.
The components of vowel quality:
1) Stability of articulation monophthongs [ɪ]. [ʌ], [ɔ], [e], [æ], [u], [ə], [ɔː], [ɑː], [ɜː] diphthongs [eɪ], [aɪ], [ɔɪ], [ɪə], [ɛə], [uə], [ɔu], [au] diphthongoids [iː], [uː]
Monophthongs - the tongue is stable. Diphthongs - the tongue changes (nuclears and glides).
In the pronunciation of diphthongoids changes in the tongue position are weak.
The position of the tongue
2-1 Horisontal movements of the tongue: 1. front vowels [iː], [e], [æ] 2. central vowels [ʌ], [ɜː], [ə] 3. back vowels [ɔ], [ɔː], [uː], [ɑː] 4. front-retracted [ɪ] 5. back-advanced [u]
2-2 Vertical movements of the tongue: 1.1. close-narrow [iː], [uː] 1.2. close-broad [ɪ], [u] 2.1. mid-narrow [e], [ɜː] 2.2. mid-broad [ʌ], [ə] 3.1. open-narrow [ɔː] 3.2.open-broad [æ], [ɑː], [ɔ]
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3 ) Lip rounding (rounded and unrounded). In English lip rounding is not relevant phonologically since no two words can be differentiated on its basis.
Checkness
5)Tenseness
Length
Types of transcription
A transcription, which is a visual system of notation of the sound structure of speech, is also a generalization of a great variety of sounds that are uttered by speakers of a given language.
If it is accuracy only in the representation of the phonemes of the language that is required, the transcription should provide each phoneme with a distinctive symbol to avoid ambiguity. Such a transcription is generally called phonemic, or broad, transcription. It contains as many symbols as there are phonemes in the language. The phonemic data is usually enclosed between virgules (also called diagonals)--: /t/.
If it is exactness in the differentiation of the allophones of each phoneme that is required, the transcription should provide either different symbols for each allophone, or introduce special marks to represent the different features of the allophones. The former would increase the number of symbols considerably, and that would cause great difficulties for those who use it. The latter is more economical, although it makes the notation rather complicated. Scholars usually make use of both ways: they provide some of the typical allophones with distinctive symbols and introduce special marks (called "diacritic marks") to denote the different features the allophones are characterized by- Such a transcription is called a phonetic, or narrow transcription. The phonetic data is customarily enclosed in square brackets: [t].
Distinctive and non-distinctive features of English consonants
Relevant features make up the basis of the phonological description, while irrelevant features are redundant from the phonological point of view but still very important for the articulation of the sounds.
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Most phoneticians agree that relevant features of English consonants are: degree of noise;
1. place of articulation;
2. manner of articulation.
Manner of articulation (Васильев’s point of view):
1. Occlusive
1.1. noise
1.1.1. plosives [b],[d],[g]; [p],[t],[k]
1.1.2. affricates [ʤ], [ʧ]
1.2. sonorants [m], [n], [ŋ]
2. Constrictive
2.1. noise [f],[v],[s],[z],[θ],[ð],[ʃ],[ʒ],[h]
2.2. sonorants
2.2.1. lateral [l]
2.2.2. medial [w],[r],[j] (й)
Place of articulation:
1. Labial
1.1. bilabial [p],[b], [m], [w]
1.2. labio-dental [f], [v]
2. Lingual
2.1. forelingual
2.1.1. interdental [θ],[ð]
2.1.2. alveolar [t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l]
2.1.3. post-alveolar [r]
2.1.4. palate-alveolar [ʃ],[ʒ], [ʤ], [ʧ]
2.2. medialingual [j]
2.3. backlingual [k],[g],[ŋ]
3. Glottal [h]
Degree of noise (Соколова’s point of view):
1. Noise
1.1. occlusive [p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g]
1.2. constrictive [f],[v],[s],[z], [θ],[ð],[ʃ],[ʒ],[h]
1.3. occlusive-constrictive [ʤ], [ʧ]
2. Sonorants
2.1. occlusive [m],[n], [ŋ]
2.2. constrictive
2.2.1. medial [w],[r],[j]
2.2.2. lateral [l]
Noise consonsants:
1. Fortis – all voiceless, [p], [k], [t]
2. Lenis – all voiced, [b], [g], [d]
Summary
Functionally relevant articulatory features of English consonants are:
· degree of noise;
· place of articulation;
· manner of articulation.
The following characteristics have no phonological value. They are indispensable features and are considerably important in teaching English phonetics:
· palatalization;
· aspiration;
· nasalization
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11. The structure and functions of syllables in English
Sounds are not pronounced separately, no boundaries. If slow the speech – it is divided I syllables ( - is the smallest articulatory unit). Each language – own rules of combining phonemes.
Syllable formation in English is based on the phonological opposition vowel - consonant. Vowels are usually syllabic while consonants are not with the exceptions of [l, m, n, r], which become syllabic in a final position preceded by a noise consonant: bottle [bσtl].
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The structure: consonants preceding the nucleus (onset), consonants, following the nucleus (coda) - closed syllables. The combination of nucleus and coda has a special significance, making up the rhyming property of a syllable. The closed type of syllable are the fundamental one.
The first is constitutive function. It lies in its ability to be a part of a word itself. The syllables form language units of greater magnitude that is words, morphemes, and utterances.
The other function is distinctive one. In this respect the syllable is characterized by its ability to differentiate words and word-forms: nitrate — night-rate, an aim - a name; an ice house - a nice house, etc. Sometimes the difference in syllable division may be the basic ground for differentiation in such pairs as I saw her rise.- I saw her eyes;
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