CHAPTER 3. THE VERB AND ITS GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES 15 страница
The two formal types of the predicate correspond to the two main semantic types: process predicate which expresses the action, the state or the existence of the subject and qualification predicate which expresses the quality (property) of the subject. The process predicate can be further subdivided into several types in accordance with the semantic types of verbs: existential ( There was a tavern in the town), statal (He slept), locative (The elephant lives in India), relational (He had a small ranch) and actional (The car broke down). The qualification predicate has three subtypes: identifying (So you are the man we have been looking for) , classifying ( My friend is a student) and characterizing ( My wife is a bit of an actress. He was too German).
There exists a fundamental parallelism between the formal and semantic types of the predicate which is manifested in the primary semantic functions of the predicate: the primary semantic function of the verbal predicate is to express process, and the primary semantic function of the nominal predicate is to express qualification. Yet this fundamental parallelism is regularly broken and both the types of the predicate can be used in their secondary semantic functions. A verbal predicate may be used to express qualification (She is constantly chattering is synonymous to She is a chatter box) and the nominal predicate can express an action (He was the only speaker at the meeting is synonymous to Only he spoke at the meeting). As a result of asymmetrical relations between the formal and semantic types of predicate we have numerous cases of syntactic, or functional synonymy in the sphere of the predicate. - Predicates become synonymous when they carry out identical semantic functions, e.g. He was a seldom reader - He seldom read. The water is undrinkable - The water cannot be drunk.
Structurally the predicate may be divided into simple and compound. Each of the formal types of the predicate may be presented by a simple and a compound structure. E.g. We said good- bye - a simple verbal predicate; It was a lovely place -simple nominal predicate. The predicate is compounded by the introduction of modal or aspective components. E.g. We started saying good-bye - a compound verbal predicate; It must be a lovely place - a compound nominal predicate. The two types of predicate can be contaminated which results in the formation of the so-called double predicate, e.g. He stared at me bewildered (S.Maugham).
Summing up the characteristics of the English predicate we must mention the following features:
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1) its analytical tendency, which is manifested in the existence of analytical and half- analytical forms;
2) its tendency towards synonymization;
3) its transitive character, a direct object is often obligatory in the English sentence (Compare: Iloemopume, noDKOJiyucma\ and Repeatjt, pleasel). If an object is semantically empty the English sentence has a dummy object, e.g. How do you likejt here? - KaK earn sdecb npaeumcRl The transitive character of the English predicate is also manifested in the existence of a great number of verbs with an incorporated direct object, e.g. to honeymoon, to kidnap etc. In translating such sentences into Russian we have to introduce a direct object, e.g. They honeymooned in Scotland - ohu npoeenu ceou Medoebiu mecnu e UJomnanduu.
3. The Object. The object is a very important part of the sentence if only because the English verb is characterized by a high degree of transitivity. Quite often the object is an obligatory part of the sentence and a sentence without an object is ungrammatical ( * / saw; *He gave etc.) On the other hand, the object is correlated with the subject of the sentence and takes up the subject position in Passive transformations. The object is also important for the actual division of the sentence as it often carries out the rhematic function.
Object can be classified according to three criteria: form, meaning and structure. According to the form objects are divided into prepositional and non- prepositional. With some verbs prepositions are inherent and they are never used without a preposition, e.g. rely on,, depend on, adhere to. With others one and the same object can be used with or without a preposition depending on its position in the sentence. E.g. She gave me a book and She gave the book to me. The position of the object in the two sentences depends on which of them becomes the focus of information. In the sentence She gave me a book the rheme is a book whereas in the sentence She gave the book to me the rheme is to me therefore it is placed at the end of the sentence.
According to their semantics objects are classified into direct, indirect, agentive (instrumental), cognate and adverbial. The most frequent types, mentioned in all grammar books, are direct and indirect objects. Most practical grammar books, however, classify objects into direct, indirect and prepositional, thus mixing the formal and semantic characteristics. Like the subject, the direct object has primary and secondary semantic functions. The primary, or prototypical semantic function of a direct object is to denote the patient of the action (here and below we use terms introduced in the works of Ch. Fillmore and V.Bogdanov), i.e. a thing or a person affected by the action, or acted upon. This meaning of the direct object is found after the verbs denoting various physical actions. E.g. His friend, the policeman, removed the glass and thus destroyed the evidence against him.
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The direct object after the verbs of physical and mental perception denotes the experiencer of the action, a person or a thing which is the object of a physical, mental or emotional perception. E.g. She liked his dignity (E.Hemingway). But I still meet his eyes across the now too silent room (P. Taylor).
The direct object can also denote a thing created as a result of activity denoted by the verb, it is called a created object, or a resultative ( L. Berk ; Ch. Fillmore). E.g. He wrote limericks. She made a huge breakfast. One and the same verb can combine with both a recipient object and a created object in different contexts . E.g. He took a piece of paper and oils and painted a beautiful house (created object); He took a brush and a pail and began to paint the house (recipient object). Sometimes a sentence may be ambiguous and we need a larger context to disambiguate it, e.g. She paints houses (Does she paint pictures of houses or does she give houses new coats of paint?)
Sentences with patient and created objects passivize easily whereas sentences with experiencer object passivize less easily (I saw the flowers - The flowers were seen; but I smelt the flowers -*The flowers were smelt).
Direct objects generally find an explicit expression in the sentence. When they are occasionally omitted they are easily understood on the basis of our language competence (on the basis of the frame of the verb (cognitive structure of the verb) in which the knowledge of the object is kept). E.g. The house wanted doing up unless he decided to move into the country and build (J. Galsworthy). If we hear that someone drinks we understand that he/she drinks alcohol but not lemonade, if we hear that somebody builds we know he builds a house but not castles in the air. Sometimes the omission of a direct object affects the general semantics of the sentence. E.g. The sentence 'He drank two beers' is an actional sentence and ' He could not understand what she found wrong with him. It was not as if he drank1. (J. Galsworthy) is a sentence of characterization. It is also of interest that if a sentence with an implicit object is passivized, it is the verb (in its V-ing form) that becomes the subject in the Passive construction . E.g. Drinking is prohibited.
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The indirect object denotes the addressee of the action, i.e. a living being which is the recipient of the action,- or in whose favour (or disfavour) the action is done. E.g. I sent him a telegram. Many English verbs are ditransitive, i.e. they require a direct and an indirect object for the realization of their lexical meanings ( give, bring', tell, sell, ask etc.) Most of indirect objects denote animate human beings, which is quite natural because they describe situations dealing with a transfer of possessions and therefore constructions with intransitive objects usually form conversive pairs (/ gave him a present - He got a present from me). An inanimate recipient is also possible, e.g. She gave the bottom of my legs the smallest glance(J.Fowles). But in this case we deal with a half-analytical construction, in which a formally indirect object semantically functions as direct object whereas the noun glance denotes an action rather than an object. (Compare the translation: Qua edea essjinnyna na mou Ho^u). Many ditransitive verbs in English have two passive transforms: I gave him a present - He was given a present and A present was given to him.
The agentive object is found in sentences with the Passive Voice and it denotes the agent of the action. E.g. The team was captained by Ivo Bligh (E. George}. The instrumental object denotes the instrument of the action and it occurs both with Active and Passive predicates. E.g. He was hit on the head with a heavy object. She could silence us with her look.
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The cognate object is an object which has the same root or the same meaning as the predicate (it is reflected in its name), e.g. to smile a smile, to live a life, to win a victory. As it duplicates the semantics of the predicate it is semantically very light (empty) and is usually preceded by an attribute. E.g. She smiled a happy smile. They lived a miserable life. He began talking a baby talk. In fact it is an object only in name, semantically it is closer to an adverbial modifier, because the cognate object construction gives a qualitative characteristic to the action. Therefore cognate object constructions are easily replaced by adverbs, e.g. to live a happy life - to live happily. They can also be used in a sentence side by side with adverbial modifiers to give a detailed characteristic of an action. E.g. He smiled brightly, neatly, efficiently, a military abbreviation of a smile (G. Greene).
Adverbial objects constitute the peripheral zone in the class of objects which is close to the adverbial modifier. They usually occur after verbs which are basically intransitive. There are several types of adverbial objects. First of all they are found with verbs of motion. These are the meanings of location (to climb a mountain, to swim a river, to tour Europe, to hike the Altai mountains) and of measure (to walk a mile). The meaning of location after the verbs of motion is generally rendered by prepositional phrases: to climb up a mountain, to swim across a river, to tour about Europe . However, there is a marked semantic difference between the prepositional adverbial phrases and the non-prepositional adverbial objects - the objects impart the meaning of completeness to an action, they imply a kind of achievement on the part of the agent which is lacking in prepositional phrases. When someone says "/ climbed the mountain'1'' it means that he/she reached the top of it (sort of conquered it!) whereas the phrase "The tourists were climbing up the hill" does not imply that they finally reached the top! The well-known Australian writer Alan Marshall entitled his autobiographical book "/ Can Jump Puddles'". The choice of the non-prepositional variant appears to be very suggestive. He had been an invalid since his childhood and jumping puddles.for the boy was quite an achievement, a victory overhis disease.
A different semantic type of adverbial objects is observed in case when they are expressed by abstract quality nouns like disbelief, embarrassment, disapproval that name emotional states. These objects give a qualitative characteristic of the action and in these meanings they are very close to adverbial modifiers of manner expressed by qualitative adverbs and are easily replaced by such adverbs. E.g. He nodded approval (A.Christie). - He nodded approvingly. Sigmund translated and the girl smiled her disbelief (E. Williams). - the girl smiled disbelievingly. However, these sentences also allow one more interpretation: to express a certain emotion through action: He expressed his approval by nodding. The girl expressed her disbelief by smiling.
Cognate and adverbial objects being close to adverbial modifiers by their semantic functions hardly ever passivize which is the direct consequence of their adverbial semantics.
According to their structure objects can be classified into simple and complex, e.g. / saw him - a simple object; / saw him look at her and smile - a complex object. As we have already mentioned sentences with complex object constructions present not simple but semicomplex structures.
The Adverbial modifier is a part of the sentence which is syntactically related to the predicate and which modifies the action or state expressed by the predicate. Depending on the valency of the predicate the adverbial modifier may be either an obligatory or an optional part of the sentence. Adverbial modifiers play an important role in the actual division of the sentence and often express the new, or most important information. E.g. "You' ve made no attempt to locate your daughter throughout the years? " "We parted badly. I had no intention of locating her. " (E. George). The adverbial modifier badly in this fragment of conversation presents the most important information as it explains the reason of the character's actions, or rather lack of intention to try and find her daughter.
The modifying function of the adverbial modifier makes it possible to compare in'with an attribute whose semantic function is to modify the substance expressed by nouns. Therefore the adverbial modifier and the attribute are often correlated: to walk slowly - a slow walk; to smile happily - a happy smile. In the functionally oriented studies adverbial modifiers of manner and attributes are treated as components of the functional-semantic field of quality (Teopiw (J)yHKo;HOHajii>HOH rpaMMaxHKH, 1996).
Action can be modified from various aspects and the cognitive structure of the verb includes many components: time, place, manner etc. Accordingly, there are several types of adverbial modifiers and they may be divided into two main groups according to their semantic distance from the verb:
1) The first group of adverbial modifiers express the inner characteristic of the action, such as manner and degree. These meanings are so close to the semantics of action and state that they may be expressed inherently, by a semantic component incorporated into the verbal-lexeme , e.g. to stalk - to walk with a stiff or haughty gait; to underpay - to pay insufficiently. "I don't like oyster loaves, " said Mary and stalked to our bedroom and slammed the door (J. Steinbeck). When such verbs are translated into Russian, this incorporated semantic component becomes adherent, e.g. He Jifodjifo h smu Kapaeau, - CKosana Mdpu u zopdo yuuia e nauty cnajibHfo, xjionnye deepbfo.
The % adverbial modifiers of manner and degree are most frequently expressed by the corresponding adverbs, e.g. She appeared noiselessly (G. Greene). In a few minutes he was deeply asleep (Ibid.). There are numerous other means of expressing manner of action, such as: constructions with adverbial nouns way, manner, style, prepositional phrases in/with a Adj. - N (in a sad voice), by the half-analytical structures of the 'have - a look' type, prepositional nominal phrases with abstract nouns (with admiration), participial and gerundial phrases ( for more detail see: [Ko3JioBa, IIIjiaxoBa 2000]). E.g. She spoke to him in a slightly more Edinburgh way than usual ( M. Spark). He stiffened his hand curate fashion (J. Fowles). "Well, I'll tell you, " he said in his loud and cheerful voice (P. Taylor). He gave the lieutenant a quick stare round (J. Fowles). He looked at me with fury, depression and despair (G. Greene).
2) The second group of adverbial modifiers express the outward characteristic of the action in its relation to other objects or processes. Here belong such types of adverbial modifiers as of time, place, attending circumstances, comparison, cause, consequence, result, purpose, condition and concession. They are expressed by adverbs, prepositional adverbial phrases, infinitival, gerundial and participial constructions. They are always expressed adherently. E.g. Day by day and almost minute by minute the past was brought up to date (G. Orwell). I've been in some pretty tight places in my time (S. Maugham). In spite of its being May the weather outside was quite wintry and nasty (P Taylor). I am not prepared to discuss my wife with a man like you (S. Maugham).
Sometimes the adverbial modifiers of time and place may loosen the direct connection with the predicate and determine the sentence on the whole. Such adverbial modifiers are called the determinants of the sentence. Very often such determinants refer not just to one sentence but to a whole paragraph and in such cases they fulfil a text-forming function, they serve as a means of text cohesion. E.g. On Saturday morning, Jimmy managed to get into conversation with a fat woman who was sitting on the beach by herself. He could see that she had a bathing costume and towel with her and he asked her if she liked swimming. The fat woman said she liked swimming but could not swim. .. This was Jimmy's opportunity and he at once offered to teach her to swim (J. Wain). The determinant on Saturday morning refers to the whole paragraph and serves as a setting to the events described.
The attribute is a part of the sentence which modifies nouns in the sentence. Its position'in the system of parts of the sentence is very specific. Unlike objects and adverbial modifiers that are predicate-oriented, the attribute is noun-oriented, i.e. it modifies a noun that can be used in any position in the sentence: subject, object, predicative or adverbial modifier. For this reason O.S.Akhmanova defined the attribute as ' a part of a part of the sentence' (hjich HJiena npefljiOKeHHa') thus stressing its subordinated character in the syntactic structure of the sentence. This position of attributes, in its turn, may be explained by the fact of their secondary derivational nature: most of the attributive relations can be traced back to predicative relations, e.g. a cold day - the day is cold; a flying bird - the bird is flying. The German scholar H. Paul characterized the attribute as 'degraded predicate' thus pointing out its derivational nature.
Attributes are usually optional parts of the sentence which is quite logical because, being noun-oriented, they are not necessitated by the valency of the verb. But they may become necessary for the semantic completeness of the sentence. E.g. My parents were working people (J.Reed). He was a fat boy with red cheeks (Sh. Andersen). The deletion of attributes from these sentences would make the sentences semantically empty as the attributes carry the most important information.
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